社会语言学2014(下)
学期论文
A Contrastive Study on English and
Chinese Address Forms
英汉称谓语差异对比研究
姓 名 学 号
专 业 学 院
Abstract
Addressing terms are reflections of traditional ethnic culture and historical accumulation and different addressing terms respectively embody different ethnic cultures. As an important part of addressing forms, kinship terms are frequently used in our daily life. In this paper, first will list the similarities and differences between English and Chinese address forms, and then make further analysis of reasons of such phenomenon in address forms. A conclusion will be made in the final chapter that the Chinese address forms are more complex than English address forms because of the cultural factors. By analyzing the property and use of kinship terms and social terms, it is not difficult for us to identify some traditional culture and cultural connotations embodied in kinship terms. This study can help us to get a new understanding of individual ideas, hierarchy concept, collective concept, and attitude towards family of English-speaking nations.
Key words: kinship terms; social terms; English and Chinese; difference; influence
摘 要
称谓语是民族传统文化和历史积淀的反映,不同的称谓语分别体现了不同的民族文化。亲属称谓是称谓语中重要的一部分,也是我们日常生活中接触最频繁的一种称谓。本文首先列出了英汉称谓语差异的相似点和不同点，然后是产生这种现象的原因分析，最后是结论，结论说明了文化因素使得汉语称谓语比英语繁杂。通过亲属称谓和社会称谓的属性和用法分析，我们不难看出其一部分传统文化及其文化内涵。通过对本课题的研究，使我们对英语民族人民的个人观念、等级观念、集体观念以及对家族的态度有了一个全新的认识。 关键词：亲属称谓；社会称谓；英汉；差异；影响
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
2 The Comparative Study of English and Chinese Address Forms ....................................... 1
2.1 Similarities of English and Chinese Address Forms ................................................. 1
2.1.1 The Same Functions ........................................................................................ 2
2.1.2 Similar T/V Distinction ................................................................................... 2
2.1.3 Similar Categories ........................................................................................... 3
2.2 Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms ....................................... 3
2.2.1 Differences in Kinship Terms ......................................................................... 3
2.2.2 Differences in Social Terms ............................................................................ 4
3 Reasons of the Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms ........................ 5
3.1 Different Grade Systems and Religions .................................................................... 5
3.2 Different Family Styles and the Blood Relationships ............................................... 6
3.3 Different Customs and Value Orientations ............................................................... 6
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 7
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 8
1 Introduction
Language is the bridge of communication and addressing terms are indispensable part to communicate. In different societies and cultures, there must be different systems of address terms. Therefore, in today’s frequent cross-cultural communication background, it is necessary to study the differences to avoid misunderstanding. During the process of intercultural communication, not knowing the partner’s way to use the address will cause pragmatic failure and even break down the communication.
According to Kridalasana (1983: 59), address forms are morpheme, word, or phrase used to refer to each other in conversation which very much depends on the relationship between the speakers and the addressees. The study of address forms is one of the most important issues of sociolinguistic study. In the past few decades, Chinese-Western scholars have studied this linguistic phenomenon in a theoretical and systematic way. Brown and Gilman (1960) have made a survey of the major systematic linguistics in Europe, and summarized the two semantic relations: power and solidarity. The Chinese scholar Ren Yuanren (1950) has made a detailed description of the modern Chinese address form system.
This paper will illustrate the relationships between language and culture and the complexity of Chinese address forms.
2 The Comparative Study of English and Chinese Address Forms
English address forms are less complicated than Chinese address forms. In Chinese, address forms are oriented by generation, age, paternal and maternal relationships and in-law relationships. But in English, the way people address others are very random. There are not so many limits. They have some similarities in the address forms’ functions, T/V distinction and categories. And also there are several differences in kinship terms and social terms.
2.1 Similarities of English and Chinese Address Forms
As a way of communication, address forms must have some similarities in different countries. The analysis of them is quite important. People from different countries have different cultures. It’s necessary to realize the similarities of the cultures. It may promote people to get along well with each other.
2.1.1 The Same Functions
People always use certain language forms to call others in communication, which are the address forms. Address forms are constantly employed by the speakers as discourse strategies, so that marked choice of address form shows the interlocutor's conscious initiatives to negotiate interpersonal relationships or to redefine interactional situations (Brown and Stephen, 1978: 152). Generally, address forms have three basic functions: the linking function, mentation function, and the regulation function.
According to the linking function of human communication, communication is used to establish relationships between the individual and the environment, and that people use symbols to create a desired image to facilitate this linking to the environment (Dance, 1976: 256). Thus, the individual is consubstantial with society.
Mentation function of address forms implies that communication stimulates the development of higher mental processes, and that mental growth is enhanced by communication. For example, the single kinship term works as a stimulus in the child's mind to help the child go through a complicated cognitive process.
About the regulation function, in verbal communication, what people say to each other is anchored in the perspective of speakers. Markers of social deixis give an indication not only of where the speaker stands in time and place, but also of his or her status within the social structure, and of the addressee’s status the speaker shows.
2.1.2 Similar T/V Distinction
According to Brown and Gilman’s (1960: 74) study , they used T/V to denote the two kinds of pronouns: the T form is described as the “familiar” form and the V form as the “polite” form. Power semantic and solidarity semantic dominate the choices between the T and the V forms. That means the upper classes or the elder address the lower classes or the younger address with T, while the lower classes or the younger address the upper classes or the elder address with V. In modern Chinese address system we can find the equivalent second person pronouns “ni (you)” and “nin (honorific you)” with Brown and Gilman’s “T” and “V”.
2.1.3 Similar Categories
The address forms between English and Chinese can be approximately divided into two parts：the kinship terms and the social terms. Kinship system is a universal feature of languages as a result of the importance in social organization. Others are all social terms besides kinship terms.
2.2 Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms
English and Chinese address forms originated from two different civilization traditions that have their own evolving history. It is not strange that there are many differences between the two. Each culture applies itself to identify, maintain and enforce the personal relationships. They are not the same.
2.2.1 Differences in Kinship Terms
According to Leach (1958: 120-145), kinship terms are “category words by means of which an individual is taught to recognize the significant groupings in the social structure into which he is born”. In kinship system, people must make use of such factors as sex, age, generation, blood and marriage in their society. And people can use the actual words from these factors to describe a particular kin relationship.
Kinship terms are very special systems of family relationships. In different societies and cultures, kinship terms are different. For example, between English and Chinese languages, only a few basic relations such as “father”, “mother”, “son”, and
Some kinship terms distinguish between sexes like a brother and a sister and generation like a child and a parent, and some kinship terms distinguish between relatives by blood and marriage. The English language pays little attention to consanguinity and affinity relations in its kinship terms. But the Chinese language considers these seriously.
In England, the descendant and the elderly relate as friends. In China, the descendant is not allowed to call the elderly by name, for that is considered against the traditional morality and social order. For example, you have to make it clear by saying “he is my father” to avoid addressing them by name. In English, the descendant is allowed to call the elderly by name, which is a way of performing intimacy in English culture, it is quite common in English to say “He is Smith.” when one people introduces his/her father.
When someone says “He is my cousin.” in English, it’s always very vague to a Chinese at what the relationship is. Because only the word “cousin” has so many meanings in Chinese language. In Chinese, the family title carries much more information with it. From them you can understand the speakers’ relationship, sex, birth order and so on. But in English, we can’t get the information only from the word
“cousin”. The concept of the kinship term
2.2.2 Differences in Social Terms
Social term means the usage of all address strategies and regulations between different social groups and social origanizations in their communication according to their social status and social roles. There are many differences between English and Chinese address forms because of the different culture.
The differences of Chinese address system tend to be more complex than English ones. Some address terms’ meanings were retained, like “laoshi”- “teacher”, “zhuren”- “director” and “shifu”- “master”. In England, people just use “Mr, Miss, Ms” or plus surname to address others. Even to these people who have no work. In China, more and more people have already used “xiaojie”- “Miss”、“xiansheng”- “Mr” to address others. But it’s still different between them. For example, the countries which regard English as their tongue language can address all female “Miss”, but in China, it can not be used to female of all ages.
Titles plus first name are mainly employed in English speaking countries. Terms of position are relatively less. However, in Chinese, terms of position are employed frequently, such as, secretary, bureau head, director or dean, standing committee, researcher, general or manager, professor, general engineer, technician, artist. Similarly, the use of respectful titles— Chairman Jiang, Premier Zhou, Director Ma— to indicate people’s influential status is typical of Chinese culture. But in English, generally speaking, the titles are only used in the emperor's clan, the upper classes of government, the religious circles, the military circles or the law circles. For example, Queen Elizabeth, President Bush, Father White, Colonel Quail, Judge Harley and so on. In England, the wide use or the distribution of reciprocal first names often surprises Chinese people. It’s natural that even young children can call their friends’ parents by their first name.
There are also differences in professional terms. In China, people tend to address others by their professional titles, and there are many kinds of professional address forms, such as “laoshi”- “teacher”, “yisheng”- “doctor” and many posts and rank titles can sevrve as social address term, such as “zhuren”- “director”, “jingli”- “manager”,
etc. But in English there are only some professional titles that can serve as address terms, such as “Doctor or Professor”. Such address forms are quite limited and not like many used by Chinese.
3 Reasons of the Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms
The differences of address forms result from different cultures. The study of the factors for the differences between English and Chinese address forms is quite necessary.
3.1 Different Grade Systems and Religions
In China, the position in the family hierarchy is distinguished clearly. It has a strict distinction between blood relative and affinal relative, clan and non-clan, and also personal status, right, obligation, behavior (Wang, 2007: 100-103). For example, someone is not only a teacher but also the president, he/she must hope others address him/her president; if someone is a deputy president, others will address him/her president to please him/her.
In England, the address forms for the post mostly exist in royalty, cohort, and religion. Royalty has supreme authority, people do not regard the official terms as a very important thing. There are no distinction between blood relative and affinal relative. For example, “cousin” includes eight address forms in China-elder brother/sister, younger brother/sister of maternal relative, etc.
3.2 Different Family Styles and the Blood Relationships
In ancient time, three generations appearing in the same place are very common in China, and the phenomenon of four generations getting together is also very common. In China, it has a parlance: three clans and six relatives. Three clans refer to “clan relative、outer relative、wife-relative”. It identifies the distance of bloodline and relationship. In western countries, people prefer small family style. When children get up they will make up new nuclear family. The conception of relatives is very diminutive.
3.3 Different Customs and Value Orientations
China is a country that regards the convention as a very significant thing. Address term is an important part of “convention”. In English, people focus on individual value and emphasize that every one are equal. Besides, since the different cultural ethical concept of value, another feature of the differences between Chinese
and English address terms is that in Chinese “old” is widely used to address others. Such as “lao daye”- “old men”, “lao daniang”- “old women”, “lao shi”- “teacher”, etc. Because in China, “lao”- “old” means who have widely horizon and are very wize. However in English, they think that “lao”- “old” means being old and useless. So if people who are addressed by their name, they will feel very happy.
4 Conclusion
To sum up, English address forms are less complicated than Chinese address forms. There are certain similarities between English and Chinese address forms. Under the influence of different social structures, different grade systems, different legal systems and religion, plus different customs and value orientations, there are differences between Chinese and English address forms. The world we live in has been coded differently in different languages under different cultural background. Cultural connotations are coded into address forms. Each language against its cultural background has its unique address system.
Bibliography
[1] Baker, H.D.R. Chinese Family and Kinship [M]. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
[2] Brown, P. and L Stephen. Universals in Languageuse: Politeness Phenomena[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
[3] Brown, R. and A Gilman. The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity [M]. America: Harvard University Press, 1960.
[4] Dance, F. and E Larson. The Functions of Human Communication: A Theoretical Approach [M]. New York: New York Press, 1976.
[5] Janet, Holmes. Language and Society [M]. U.N.: Victoria University of Wellington, 1992.
[6] Leach, E. R. The Developmental Cycle in Domestic Groups [M]. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1958.
[7] Ren Yuanren. Chinese Terms of Address [M]. Cambridge: Massachusetts press, 1956.
[8] Kridalasana. “Kelas kata Dalan Bahasa Indonasia ” [J]. Indonesian Language.
1986(12): 153-155.
[9] Mc, Cormack. Language and Thought [M]. Paris: Mouton Publishers, 1977.
[10] 尚亭. 中英社交称谓语对比研究[J].重庆： 昭通师范高等学校学报,
2004-12(6): 56-59.
[11] 汪美琼. 英汉社会称谓语的差异研究 [J].福建：黄石理工学院学报，
2007-06(2): 100-103.
社会语言学2014(下)
学期论文
A Contrastive Study on English and
Chinese Address Forms
英汉称谓语差异对比研究
姓 名 学 号
专 业 学 院
Abstract
Addressing terms are reflections of traditional ethnic culture and historical accumulation and different addressing terms respectively embody different ethnic cultures. As an important part of addressing forms, kinship terms are frequently used in our daily life. In this paper, first will list the similarities and differences between English and Chinese address forms, and then make further analysis of reasons of such phenomenon in address forms. A conclusion will be made in the final chapter that the Chinese address forms are more complex than English address forms because of the cultural factors. By analyzing the property and use of kinship terms and social terms, it is not difficult for us to identify some traditional culture and cultural connotations embodied in kinship terms. This study can help us to get a new understanding of individual ideas, hierarchy concept, collective concept, and attitude towards family of English-speaking nations.
Key words: kinship terms; social terms; English and Chinese; difference; influence
摘 要
称谓语是民族传统文化和历史积淀的反映,不同的称谓语分别体现了不同的民族文化。亲属称谓是称谓语中重要的一部分,也是我们日常生活中接触最频繁的一种称谓。本文首先列出了英汉称谓语差异的相似点和不同点，然后是产生这种现象的原因分析，最后是结论，结论说明了文化因素使得汉语称谓语比英语繁杂。通过亲属称谓和社会称谓的属性和用法分析，我们不难看出其一部分传统文化及其文化内涵。通过对本课题的研究，使我们对英语民族人民的个人观念、等级观念、集体观念以及对家族的态度有了一个全新的认识。 关键词：亲属称谓；社会称谓；英汉；差异；影响
Contents
1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
2 The Comparative Study of English and Chinese Address Forms ....................................... 1
2.1 Similarities of English and Chinese Address Forms ................................................. 1
2.1.1 The Same Functions ........................................................................................ 2
2.1.2 Similar T/V Distinction ................................................................................... 2
2.1.3 Similar Categories ........................................................................................... 3
2.2 Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms ....................................... 3
2.2.1 Differences in Kinship Terms ......................................................................... 3
2.2.2 Differences in Social Terms ............................................................................ 4
3 Reasons of the Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms ........................ 5
3.1 Different Grade Systems and Religions .................................................................... 5
3.2 Different Family Styles and the Blood Relationships ............................................... 6
3.3 Different Customs and Value Orientations ............................................................... 6
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 7
Bibliography .......................................................................................................................... 8
1 Introduction
Language is the bridge of communication and addressing terms are indispensable part to communicate. In different societies and cultures, there must be different systems of address terms. Therefore, in today’s frequent cross-cultural communication background, it is necessary to study the differences to avoid misunderstanding. During the process of intercultural communication, not knowing the partner’s way to use the address will cause pragmatic failure and even break down the communication.
According to Kridalasana (1983: 59), address forms are morpheme, word, or phrase used to refer to each other in conversation which very much depends on the relationship between the speakers and the addressees. The study of address forms is one of the most important issues of sociolinguistic study. In the past few decades, Chinese-Western scholars have studied this linguistic phenomenon in a theoretical and systematic way. Brown and Gilman (1960) have made a survey of the major systematic linguistics in Europe, and summarized the two semantic relations: power and solidarity. The Chinese scholar Ren Yuanren (1950) has made a detailed description of the modern Chinese address form system.
This paper will illustrate the relationships between language and culture and the complexity of Chinese address forms.
2 The Comparative Study of English and Chinese Address Forms
English address forms are less complicated than Chinese address forms. In Chinese, address forms are oriented by generation, age, paternal and maternal relationships and in-law relationships. But in English, the way people address others are very random. There are not so many limits. They have some similarities in the address forms’ functions, T/V distinction and categories. And also there are several differences in kinship terms and social terms.
2.1 Similarities of English and Chinese Address Forms
As a way of communication, address forms must have some similarities in different countries. The analysis of them is quite important. People from different countries have different cultures. It’s necessary to realize the similarities of the cultures. It may promote people to get along well with each other.
2.1.1 The Same Functions
People always use certain language forms to call others in communication, which are the address forms. Address forms are constantly employed by the speakers as discourse strategies, so that marked choice of address form shows the interlocutor's conscious initiatives to negotiate interpersonal relationships or to redefine interactional situations (Brown and Stephen, 1978: 152). Generally, address forms have three basic functions: the linking function, mentation function, and the regulation function.
According to the linking function of human communication, communication is used to establish relationships between the individual and the environment, and that people use symbols to create a desired image to facilitate this linking to the environment (Dance, 1976: 256). Thus, the individual is consubstantial with society.
Mentation function of address forms implies that communication stimulates the development of higher mental processes, and that mental growth is enhanced by communication. For example, the single kinship term works as a stimulus in the child's mind to help the child go through a complicated cognitive process.
About the regulation function, in verbal communication, what people say to each other is anchored in the perspective of speakers. Markers of social deixis give an indication not only of where the speaker stands in time and place, but also of his or her status within the social structure, and of the addressee’s status the speaker shows.
2.1.2 Similar T/V Distinction
According to Brown and Gilman’s (1960: 74) study , they used T/V to denote the two kinds of pronouns: the T form is described as the “familiar” form and the V form as the “polite” form. Power semantic and solidarity semantic dominate the choices between the T and the V forms. That means the upper classes or the elder address the lower classes or the younger address with T, while the lower classes or the younger address the upper classes or the elder address with V. In modern Chinese address system we can find the equivalent second person pronouns “ni (you)” and “nin (honorific you)” with Brown and Gilman’s “T” and “V”.
2.1.3 Similar Categories
The address forms between English and Chinese can be approximately divided into two parts：the kinship terms and the social terms. Kinship system is a universal feature of languages as a result of the importance in social organization. Others are all social terms besides kinship terms.
2.2 Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms
English and Chinese address forms originated from two different civilization traditions that have their own evolving history. It is not strange that there are many differences between the two. Each culture applies itself to identify, maintain and enforce the personal relationships. They are not the same.
2.2.1 Differences in Kinship Terms
According to Leach (1958: 120-145), kinship terms are “category words by means of which an individual is taught to recognize the significant groupings in the social structure into which he is born”. In kinship system, people must make use of such factors as sex, age, generation, blood and marriage in their society. And people can use the actual words from these factors to describe a particular kin relationship.
Kinship terms are very special systems of family relationships. In different societies and cultures, kinship terms are different. For example, between English and Chinese languages, only a few basic relations such as “father”, “mother”, “son”, and
Some kinship terms distinguish between sexes like a brother and a sister and generation like a child and a parent, and some kinship terms distinguish between relatives by blood and marriage. The English language pays little attention to consanguinity and affinity relations in its kinship terms. But the Chinese language considers these seriously.
In England, the descendant and the elderly relate as friends. In China, the descendant is not allowed to call the elderly by name, for that is considered against the traditional morality and social order. For example, you have to make it clear by saying “he is my father” to avoid addressing them by name. In English, the descendant is allowed to call the elderly by name, which is a way of performing intimacy in English culture, it is quite common in English to say “He is Smith.” when one people introduces his/her father.
When someone says “He is my cousin.” in English, it’s always very vague to a Chinese at what the relationship is. Because only the word “cousin” has so many meanings in Chinese language. In Chinese, the family title carries much more information with it. From them you can understand the speakers’ relationship, sex, birth order and so on. But in English, we can’t get the information only from the word
“cousin”. The concept of the kinship term
2.2.2 Differences in Social Terms
Social term means the usage of all address strategies and regulations between different social groups and social origanizations in their communication according to their social status and social roles. There are many differences between English and Chinese address forms because of the different culture.
The differences of Chinese address system tend to be more complex than English ones. Some address terms’ meanings were retained, like “laoshi”- “teacher”, “zhuren”- “director” and “shifu”- “master”. In England, people just use “Mr, Miss, Ms” or plus surname to address others. Even to these people who have no work. In China, more and more people have already used “xiaojie”- “Miss”、“xiansheng”- “Mr” to address others. But it’s still different between them. For example, the countries which regard English as their tongue language can address all female “Miss”, but in China, it can not be used to female of all ages.
Titles plus first name are mainly employed in English speaking countries. Terms of position are relatively less. However, in Chinese, terms of position are employed frequently, such as, secretary, bureau head, director or dean, standing committee, researcher, general or manager, professor, general engineer, technician, artist. Similarly, the use of respectful titles— Chairman Jiang, Premier Zhou, Director Ma— to indicate people’s influential status is typical of Chinese culture. But in English, generally speaking, the titles are only used in the emperor's clan, the upper classes of government, the religious circles, the military circles or the law circles. For example, Queen Elizabeth, President Bush, Father White, Colonel Quail, Judge Harley and so on. In England, the wide use or the distribution of reciprocal first names often surprises Chinese people. It’s natural that even young children can call their friends’ parents by their first name.
There are also differences in professional terms. In China, people tend to address others by their professional titles, and there are many kinds of professional address forms, such as “laoshi”- “teacher”, “yisheng”- “doctor” and many posts and rank titles can sevrve as social address term, such as “zhuren”- “director”, “jingli”- “manager”,
etc. But in English there are only some professional titles that can serve as address terms, such as “Doctor or Professor”. Such address forms are quite limited and not like many used by Chinese.
3 Reasons of the Differences between English and Chinese Address Forms
The differences of address forms result from different cultures. The study of the factors for the differences between English and Chinese address forms is quite necessary.
3.1 Different Grade Systems and Religions
In China, the position in the family hierarchy is distinguished clearly. It has a strict distinction between blood relative and affinal relative, clan and non-clan, and also personal status, right, obligation, behavior (Wang, 2007: 100-103). For example, someone is not only a teacher but also the president, he/she must hope others address him/her president; if someone is a deputy president, others will address him/her president to please him/her.
In England, the address forms for the post mostly exist in royalty, cohort, and religion. Royalty has supreme authority, people do not regard the official terms as a very important thing. There are no distinction between blood relative and affinal relative. For example, “cousin” includes eight address forms in China-elder brother/sister, younger brother/sister of maternal relative, etc.
3.2 Different Family Styles and the Blood Relationships
In ancient time, three generations appearing in the same place are very common in China, and the phenomenon of four generations getting together is also very common. In China, it has a parlance: three clans and six relatives. Three clans refer to “clan relative、outer relative、wife-relative”. It identifies the distance of bloodline and relationship. In western countries, people prefer small family style. When children get up they will make up new nuclear family. The conception of relatives is very diminutive.
3.3 Different Customs and Value Orientations
China is a country that regards the convention as a very significant thing. Address term is an important part of “convention”. In English, people focus on individual value and emphasize that every one are equal. Besides, since the different cultural ethical concept of value, another feature of the differences between Chinese
and English address terms is that in Chinese “old” is widely used to address others. Such as “lao daye”- “old men”, “lao daniang”- “old women”, “lao shi”- “teacher”, etc. Because in China, “lao”- “old” means who have widely horizon and are very wize. However in English, they think that “lao”- “old” means being old and useless. So if people who are addressed by their name, they will feel very happy.
4 Conclusion
To sum up, English address forms are less complicated than Chinese address forms. There are certain similarities between English and Chinese address forms. Under the influence of different social structures, different grade systems, different legal systems and religion, plus different customs and value orientations, there are differences between Chinese and English address forms. The world we live in has been coded differently in different languages under different cultural background. Cultural connotations are coded into address forms. Each language against its cultural background has its unique address system.
Bibliography
[1] Baker, H.D.R. Chinese Family and Kinship [M]. New York: Columbia University Press, 1979.
[2] Brown, P. and L Stephen. Universals in Languageuse: Politeness Phenomena[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
[3] Brown, R. and A Gilman. The Pronouns of Power and Solidarity [M]. America: Harvard University Press, 1960.
[4] Dance, F. and E Larson. The Functions of Human Communication: A Theoretical Approach [M]. New York: New York Press, 1976.
[5] Janet, Holmes. Language and Society [M]. U.N.: Victoria University of Wellington, 1992.
[6] Leach, E. R. The Developmental Cycle in Domestic Groups [M]. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1958.
[7] Ren Yuanren. Chinese Terms of Address [M]. Cambridge: Massachusetts press, 1956.
[8] Kridalasana. “Kelas kata Dalan Bahasa Indonasia ” [J]. Indonesian Language.
1986(12): 153-155.
[9] Mc, Cormack. Language and Thought [M]. Paris: Mouton Publishers, 1977.
[10] 尚亭. 中英社交称谓语对比研究[J].重庆： 昭通师范高等学校学报,
2004-12(6): 56-59.
[11] 汪美琼. 英汉社会称谓语的差异研究 [J].福建：黄石理工学院学报，
2007-06(2): 100-103.