1.1.1 填空判断：
①linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science studies the rules systems and principles of language. 3 cannons(标准):exhaustiveness全面性consistency 一致性economy.
②linguistics study the origin, growth, organization. Nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language. 2 purposes: study the nature, establish a theory and describe language by that theory; examines all language and seeks understanding ways to fulfill the needs human need. 1.1.2 填空判断选择：
Linguistics differ from traditional grammar:
①linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness. ②linguists regard spoken as primary not written. Speech came earlier than writing system. ③traditional grammar based on Latin while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.
1.1.4 名词解释
Microlinguistics: Phonetics(语音学), phonology(语音学), morphology(形态学),syntax(句法学), semantics(语义学),pragmatics(语用学).
Macrolinguistics: sociolinguistics(社会语言学),psycholinguistics(心理语言学),stylistics(文体学),discourse analysis(话语分析), computational linguistics(计算语言学),cognitive linguistics(认知语言学)
1.2.1 全especially 判断
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system, arbitrary, vocal. Language is used for human communication. 1.2.3
Arbitrariness(任意性): refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.
Duality(二元性):organization of language into two levels - a level of sounds which combine into a second level of larger units is called duality. language works on two levels: 1 have no meaning but combine to form unites at another level have meaning.
Productivity(创造性): linguistic ability enables to produce and understand sentences. Interchageability(可交换性):man can both produce and receive messages easily. Displacement(移位性):enable people to talk a thing in other space and time.
Specialization:man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission(文化传递):language is culturally transmitted. Cannot be transmitted through heredity. 1.2.4
Phatic function 交际功能, directive function 指示功能, informative function 信息功能, interrogative function 询问功能, expressive function 表情功能, evocative function 召唤功能, performative function施为功能, recreationalfunction娱乐功能, metalingual function元语言功能（language can talk itself）
1.3.1 descriptive and prescriptive grammar 描写式&规定式
Descriptive describes what actually say, descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language. 1.3.2 synchronic and diachronic linguistics 共时性和历时性 1.3.3 langue and parole 语言和言语
Langue Parole
Abstract knowledge concrete manifestation Social conventional individualized Code message
Stable and systematic subject to personal and situational
1.3.4 competence and performance 语言能力和应用
Competence refers to the knowledge that native speaker have of their language as a system of abstract relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.
1.3.5 syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
1.3.6functionalism and formalism功能主义和形式主义
2.2.2 voiced and voiceless sound浊音和清音
ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/
The height of the tongue Central vowels: /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/
Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/ Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ The shape of the lip
Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/ /ɑ:/
Open vowels: /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/
The width of the mouth Close vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /u:/ /u/ Semi-open vowels: /ɔ://e/ /ɛ/ /з:/ // /ʌ/
2.2.5
Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg” is often pronounced /ə’neg/.
Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word “suppose” is often pronounced as /spəʊz/, “factory” as /’fӕktrı/.
Assimilation: the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in
sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im-” before words such as “possible”---”impossible”.
2.3Phonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. 2.3.1Phoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which and distinguish meaning.
For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of the second word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes.
2.3.2minimal pairs and sets最小对立体
Minimal pairs are two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string
Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.
When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set. 2.3.3 free variation
when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i:δər/ and /’aıδər/. 2.3.4distinctive features
When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature).For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so /s/ and /z/ is a voicing difference.
2.3.5 syllables and consonant cluster音节和辅音丛 Syllable structure syllable
onset rime(rhyme)
nucleus(peak) coda
consonant(s) vowel consonant(s)
consonant cluster:
In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.
Initial cluster: /spl/ in /’spl ӕʃ/ splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medial cluster: /str/ in /’pe ıstr ı/ pastry A word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules: The first consonant must be /s/
The second phoneme must be /p /or /t/ or /k/ The third consonant must be /l / or /r / or /w / or /j /
3.2 a morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function 3.2.1Free morphemes
a word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a morpheme.
The free morphemes can be generally considered as the set of separate English word-forms.
Free morphemes can be divided into two categories:1 lexical morphemes, the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of message we convey. 2 functional morphemes, consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. 3.2.2Bound morphemes
Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as part of words are called bound morphemes. Bound morphemes are actually affixes. Prefixes: affixes at the beginning of the root or stem Suffixes: affixed at the end of the root or stem
2 categories:① derivational morphemes: used to make new word in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. ② inflectional morphemes: are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word
freemorphemes
prefixes derivational affixes suffixes
3.3 morphs and allomorphs
Morphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance in the level of parole. Allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. 3.4 types of word formation
Compound 合成构词法：收尾词什么词性复合词就是什么词性 Derivation 派生构词法：adding affixed to other words or morphemes Conversion 转类构词法：noun become verb or verb become noun Backformation 逆向构词法 Clipping 截断构词法
Blending 混成构词法e.g. gasohol=gasoline+alchol motel=motor+hotel Acronym 首字母拼音词pronounce as single words
Initialism 首字母拼写词 pronounce by saying each letter
1.1.1 填空判断：
①linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science studies the rules systems and principles of language. 3 cannons(标准):exhaustiveness全面性consistency 一致性economy.
②linguistics study the origin, growth, organization. Nature and development of language and discovers the general rules and principles governing language. 2 purposes: study the nature, establish a theory and describe language by that theory; examines all language and seeks understanding ways to fulfill the needs human need. 1.1.2 填空判断选择：
Linguistics differ from traditional grammar:
①linguistics describes languages and does not lay down rules of correctness. ②linguists regard spoken as primary not written. Speech came earlier than writing system. ③traditional grammar based on Latin while linguistics describes each language on its own merits.
1.1.4 名词解释
Microlinguistics: Phonetics(语音学), phonology(语音学), morphology(形态学),syntax(句法学), semantics(语义学),pragmatics(语用学).
Macrolinguistics: sociolinguistics(社会语言学),psycholinguistics(心理语言学),stylistics(文体学),discourse analysis(话语分析), computational linguistics(计算语言学),cognitive linguistics(认知语言学)
1.2.1 全especially 判断
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. Language is a system, arbitrary, vocal. Language is used for human communication. 1.2.3
Arbitrariness(任意性): refers to the fact that there is no logical or intrinsic connection between a particular sound and the meaning it is associated with.
Duality(二元性):organization of language into two levels - a level of sounds which combine into a second level of larger units is called duality. language works on two levels: 1 have no meaning but combine to form unites at another level have meaning.
Productivity(创造性): linguistic ability enables to produce and understand sentences. Interchageability(可交换性):man can both produce and receive messages easily. Displacement(移位性):enable people to talk a thing in other space and time.
Specialization:man does not have a total physical involvement in the act of communication. Cultural transmission(文化传递):language is culturally transmitted. Cannot be transmitted through heredity. 1.2.4
Phatic function 交际功能, directive function 指示功能, informative function 信息功能, interrogative function 询问功能, expressive function 表情功能, evocative function 召唤功能, performative function施为功能, recreationalfunction娱乐功能, metalingual function元语言功能（language can talk itself）
1.3.1 descriptive and prescriptive grammar 描写式&规定式
Descriptive describes what actually say, descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language. 1.3.2 synchronic and diachronic linguistics 共时性和历时性 1.3.3 langue and parole 语言和言语
Langue Parole
Abstract knowledge concrete manifestation Social conventional individualized Code message
Stable and systematic subject to personal and situational
1.3.4 competence and performance 语言能力和应用
Competence refers to the knowledge that native speaker have of their language as a system of abstract relations, while performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is, the actual use of this knowledge.
1.3.5 syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
1.3.6functionalism and formalism功能主义和形式主义
2.2.2 voiced and voiceless sound浊音和清音
ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/
The height of the tongue Central vowels: /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/
Back vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/ Rounded vowels: /u:/ /u/ /ɔ:/ /ɔ/ The shape of the lip
Unrounded vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /e/ /ɛ/ /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /з:/ /ə/ /ʌ/ /ɑ:/
Open vowels: /ӕ/ /ɑ/ /ɔ/ /ɑ:/
The width of the mouth Close vowels: /i:/ /ı/ /u:/ /u/ Semi-open vowels: /ɔ://e/ /ɛ/ /з:/ // /ʌ/
2.2.5
Liaison: The phenomenon of the linking of two words in speech, in particular when the second word begins with a vowel, is called liaison. The phrase “an egg” is often pronounced /ə’neg/.
Elision : the loss of a sound or sounds in speech is called elision. The word “suppose” is often pronounced as /spəʊz/, “factory” as /’fӕktrı/.
Assimilation: the way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in
sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. In English the negative prefix occurs as “im-” before words such as “possible”---”impossible”.
2.3Phonology : is the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. 2.3.1Phoneme is the phonological units of language, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which and distinguish meaning.
For example, sip and zip is signaled by the fact that the initial sound of the first word is s/s/ and the initial sound of the second word is z/z/./s/and /z/can therefore distinguish or contrast words. Such distinctive sounds are called phonemes.
2.3.2minimal pairs and sets最小对立体
Minimal pairs are two words which are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string
Minimal pairs are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound.
When a group of words can be differentiated each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a minimal set. 2.3.3 free variation
when two or more sounds occur in the same positon without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation.
For example, there are two pronunciation of the word either,we can say /i:δər/ and /’aıδər/. 2.3.4distinctive features
When a feature distinguishes one phoneme from another it is a distinctive feature (or a phonemic feature).For example, seal and zeal distinguishes by /s/ ad /z/,/s/ is voiceless and /z/ is voiced,so /s/ and /z/ is a voicing difference.
2.3.5 syllables and consonant cluster音节和辅音丛 Syllable structure syllable
onset rime(rhyme)
nucleus(peak) coda
consonant(s) vowel consonant(s)
consonant cluster:
In English some words may contain a sequence of two or more consonants in one syllable, for example, /spl/ in /’splendid/. Sequences of consonants like this are called consonant clusters.
Initial cluster: /spl/ in /’spl ӕʃ/ splash Final cluster: /st/ in /test/ test Medial cluster: /str/ in /’pe ıstr ı/ pastry A word which begins with three-consonant clusters always observes three strict rules: The first consonant must be /s/
The second phoneme must be /p /or /t/ or /k/ The third consonant must be /l / or /r / or /w / or /j /
3.2 a morpheme is a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function 3.2.1Free morphemes
a word must contain an element that can stand by itself, that is, a morpheme.
The free morphemes can be generally considered as the set of separate English word-forms.
Free morphemes can be divided into two categories:1 lexical morphemes, the set of ordinary nouns, verbs and adjectives which carry the content of message we convey. 2 functional morphemes, consists of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, articles, prepositions and pronouns. 3.2.2Bound morphemes
Some morphemes cannot normally stand alone, but function only as part of words are called bound morphemes. Bound morphemes are actually affixes. Prefixes: affixes at the beginning of the root or stem Suffixes: affixed at the end of the root or stem
2 categories:① derivational morphemes: used to make new word in the language and are often used to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. ② inflectional morphemes: are not used to produce new words, but rather to show aspects of the grammatical function of a word
freemorphemes
prefixes derivational affixes suffixes
3.3 morphs and allomorphs
Morphs are the smallest meaningful phonetic segments of an utterance in the level of parole. Allomorph is a member of a set of morphs which represent the same morpheme. 3.4 types of word formation
Compound 合成构词法：收尾词什么词性复合词就是什么词性 Derivation 派生构词法：adding affixed to other words or morphemes Conversion 转类构词法：noun become verb or verb become noun Backformation 逆向构词法 Clipping 截断构词法
Blending 混成构词法e.g. gasohol=gasoline+alchol motel=motor+hotel Acronym 首字母拼音词pronounce as single words
Initialism 首字母拼写词 pronounce by saying each letter