摘 要（三号宋体，加粗，居中）
作为交际活动的重要组成部分和五项最基本的语言技能之一，英语听力训练与其能力的提高日益受到人们的重视。为了能和使用英语的人士流利地用英语进行交流，并在考试中取得好成绩，许多大学生都在坚持听力练习。然而，一个不容忽视的事实却是训练结果总是不尽人意。就大学生而言，在经过了许多年的英语训练与学习之后，听力理解部分依然是其弱项和最为害怕的部分。究其原因是因为学生过于注重听力训练而缺少相关理论的指导。
在各种理论当中，图式理论对听力理解的实践有一定的指导作用。因为听力理解的过程就是学生运用脑中已有的背景知识，即图式，来理解所听到的新信息并进而了解和掌握整篇内容的过程。
本文作者首先分析了当代大学生听力学习的现状，继而指出影响大学生英语听力水平提高的三个主要障碍，即语言障碍、文化障碍和心理障碍，并分析它们与图式理论的关系，说明图式理论对听力理解水平的提高有着极其重要的指导作用。其次，作者从图式理论对改善英语听力实践的指导意义出发，通过一些具体实例分析了图式理论的三种主要图式，即语言图式、形式图式和内容图式，并分别说明它们对促进英语听力能力的重要作用。最后，作者强调指出，对大学生而言，建立足够的图式并把三种图式与听力训练实践有机结合，可以有效地提高大学生的英语听力水平。
关键词（小四号宋体、加粗）：（冒号）图式；图式理论；英语听力练习
此页注意事项：
1. 汉文摘要，单独成页；
2. 中文摘要内容不少于500汉字，为小四号宋体;
3. 关键词小四号宋体，每个关键词之间用分号分隔，关键词一般3-5个，除专有
名词外，其他单词首字母不大写；
4. 注：该论文从摘要到Bibliography部分的行间距，全部设置为固定值，
24磅。
Abstract（三号，Times New Roman，居中）
As a central component of language communication and one of the five basic language skills, English listening has been paid more and more attention by foreign language learners, seeking an improvement in their listening ability. In order to communicate fluently with English-speaking people in English, and also to ensure high scores in English examinations, many university students keep practicing their listening. However, one fact that can‟t be overlooked is that the training result is quite unsatisfactory. As for university students, after so many years of English training and learning, listening comprehension part remains their weakness and headache. One reason lies in the fact that students attach too much importance to the practice while they are short of the guidance of relevant theories.
Of all the theories, schema theory has practical value to listening practice. This is because listening comprehension process is one during which students resort to their existing knowledge stored in their minds, namely, schemata, try to make sense of what they hear and then learn about and grasp the whole meaning of the listening material.
According to the current situation of college students‟ listening comprehension, the author concludes the following three obstacles in English listening: language, culture and psychology, and then analyzes the relationship between schema theory and these obstacles, aiming to state the significance of schema theory to the improvement of one‟s listening ability. ….（略）
Key words（小四号Times New Roman，加粗）: （冒号）schemata; schema theory; English listening practice; application
此页注意事项：
1. 英文摘要，单独成页；
2. 英文摘要内容应与中文摘要内容相对应，不能省略意思。小四号Times New
Roman；
3. 英文关键词与中文关键词必须对应，小四号Times New Roman，关键词之间用分
号分隔）
Contents（三号Times New Roman，加粗，居中）
摘 要 .................................................................................................................................... I Abstract ................................................................................................................................. II
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1
2 Schema Theory ................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Schema Theory ......................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Two Basic Processes ................................................................................................. 2
3 The Present Situation of College Students‟ Listening Practice .......................................... 4
3.1 Three Obstacles in English Listening ....................................................................... 5
3.2 The Relationship between Schema Theory and These Three Factors ...................... 7
4 The Three Types of Schematic Knowledge and Their Application .................................... 7
4.1 Linguistic Schemata and Their Application.............................................................. 7
4.2 Formal Schemata and Their Application .................................................................. 8
4.3 Content Schemata and Their Application ................................................................. 7
5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 7
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................ 9
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 10
此页注意事项：
1. 单独成页；
2. 字体小四号Times New Roman；
3. 部分制作方式：先点击第4列的“插入”，再“引用”---“索引和目录”---“目
录”---将“显示页码”、“页码右对齐”划钩，“制表符前导符”选 “第二种”，即如上所示虚线，格式选 “来自模板”，大纲级别选“3”.其他不动即可。
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
1 Introduction（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
（正文：首行空4个英文字符格，小四号Times New Roman。下同）The study of metaphor has long been with us and the focus of the study is the mechanism of metaphor. It is the most significant and indispensable part of the study. For more than two thousand years, the study is carried on mainly from the perspective of rhetoric, viewing metaphor as a device of rhetoric, an embellishment of language. The representative of the theories in this long period is Aristotle‟s Comparison Theory and Quintilian‟s Theory of Substitution. Because metaphor is not only a rhetorical phenomenon, but also one of cognition, the interpretation force of these theories is very limited. In 1936, I.A. Richards put forward Interaction Theory. Later Max Black made an elaboration of the work of his. Interaction Theory claims that metaphor is a cognitively irreducible phenomenon that works not at the level of word combination, but much deeper, arising out of the interaction between the conceptual structures underlying the words. But the ones who really turn the study of metaphor to a new page are George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. The mark of this change is the publication of the book named Metaphors We Live by. The theory of Lakoff and Johnson‟s is Conceptual Metaphor Theory. As these scholars regard metaphor as the creation of similarity, their theories concentrate on how the similarity is created and how the new meaning is produced though their interpretations are not perfect. Recently, another theory appeared—Conceptual Integration Theory or Blending Theory. Comparatively speaking, it is more convincing on the mechanism of metaphor than the other two.
此部分注意事项：
1. 从Introduction部分开始，就是正文了。
2. 正文开始加页眉和页脚，正文奇数页眉为本人毕业设计（论文）英文题目，
偶数页眉为“西南石油大学本科毕业设计(论文)”，页码在页脚，页眉和页脚
均为五号宋体、居中。
3. 注意：Introduction部分字数不少于400字。
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
2 Schema Theory（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
2.1 Schema Theory （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
In accordance with theory, schema is not only the basis of cognition but also the knowledge framework stored up in people‟s memories to express general conceptions. Pearson thinks schema is the pictures or associations emerging in people‟s memories when they read or hear some information (Pearson, 1987: 89)（正文中的夹注，小四号Times New Roman。 下同）. Cook points out that schema is the knowledge or background information which has been stored up in people‟s minds, namely, ….
注意：夹注中的名字，必须在后面参考文献中找得到对应项，否则将是伪引证。
2.2 Two Basic Processes （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Andrew Ortony, one of the most influential writers on metaphor, has pointed out, and there are few who would disagree with him, that it is still the case that “Any serious study of metaphor is almost obliged to start with the works of Aristotle” (Ortony, 1993: 3).（注意：此处指引文来源：作者，年代，页码）
In Poetics, Aristotle expounds the essence, function and the way of explanation of metaphor as three nuclei. He defines metaphor as “the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion” (Aristotle, 1972: 71). Then he gives four kinds of metaphor: 引文：前
缩进10
个字母、
后不缩
进、上下
各空1
行。
Since „lying at anchor‟ is a species of the genus „lying‟, one can say „there lies my ship‟ (genus-to-species metaphor), since „ten thousand‟ is a species of a „large number‟, one can say verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought (species-to-genus metaphor). Since „to draw away‟ and „to cleave‟ are each a species of the genus „taking away‟, one can
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
say with blade of bronze drew away the life (species-to-species metaphor). And since old age
is to life as evening to the day, one can say that old age is the evening of life (ibid.). (注
意：此符号ibid.意为同上，引文出处与上相同。本例为整段引用，
即block quotation， 前后空五号字一行 )
All metaphors, Aristotle believes, fall into at least one of these four categories, although analogy metaphors are the most pleasing. Aristotle also holds that metaphor can make the prosaic style charming, and stresses that it can only be confined to poetry (ibid.
72). This perspective leads to the later theorists making distinction between poetic language and everyday language. Especially in Chapter 21 and 22 of Poetics, Aristotle states that every word “is either current, or strange, or metaphor, or ornamental, or newly coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered” (ibid. 70). It is obvious that Aristotle classifies metaphors as lying outside normal language use. They are deviant or aberrant forms of discourse. He also holds that metaphor has no cognitive value and is merely an embellishment of language (Kittay, 1987: 1). Also in this chapter of Poetics, he elaborates how metaphors are unusual and discusses the relationship between metaphor and genius, viewing metaphor as a talent of epic poets and tragedians:
引文：前
缩进10个
字母、后
不缩进、
上下各空
1行 The greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. This alone can not be imported by another; it is the mark of genius—for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances ( Aristotle, 1976: 72).
As Hawks writes about Aristotle‟s account of metaphor:
引文：前
缩进10个
字母、后
不缩进、
上下各空
1行 is abundantly clear that, as an entity in itself, metaphor is regarded as a decorative addition to language, to be used in specific ways, and at specific times and places (ibid. 8-9).
In Rhetoric, Aristotle says that the best metaphors are those that achieve the effect of
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
bringing things vividly before the eyes of the audience. He argues that this effect is “produced by words which refer to things in action”( ibid. 92-93). “The best image involves a metaphor” (ibid. 96). From the above statements, we know that Aristotle views metaphor as a rhetorical device and an embellishment of language. Finally he establishes his theory on metaphor—Comparison Theory. It is the earliest theory in the history of the study of metaphor. Its main gist is:
1 Metaphors are matters of language and not matters of thought or action.
There is no such thing as metaphorical thought or action.
2 A metaphor of the form “A is B” is a linguistic expression whose meaning is
引文：前
缩进10个
字母、后
不缩进、
上下各空
1行 the same as a corresponding linguistic expression of the form “A is like B, in respect X, Y, Z…” “Respects X, Y, Z…” characterize what we have called “isolated similarities”. 3 A metaphor can therefore only describe preexisting similarities. It can‟t create
similarities (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 153).（注意：如果在论文中
引用同一作者的不同的著作，应加上出版年代以
示区别）
3 The Present Situation of College Students’ Listening Practice（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction” (Richards, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/502600/IA-Richards) .（注意：如果在网上引用的东西，有作者无页码，或没有其它信息，应加上网址；如果连作者都没有，加上网址在括号内，如下：）
In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
is
a resultant of their interaction” (Richards, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/502600/IA-Richards)
3.1 Three Obstacles in English Listening （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
According to a research by professor Liu of Northeast Forestry …..
（注意：引文来自于中文作者，用准确的汉语拼音表述）
But even in literary translation, linguistics is hardly a burden. Some famous Chinese scholars pointed out that “If one sees linguistics as a body of rules regulating language, translators most probably will yawn with boredom. If it signifies the use of words and locutions to fit an occasion, there is nothing to stop translators from embracing linguistics.” (Wang Zongyan and Shen Jiaxuan, 2011: 38).
(注意：作者有三个以上，则在第一位作者的姓氏后写上et al.以示其余姓氏的省略，或列上全部姓氏，夹注中的形式应与参考文献中的形式保持一致)，如下：
Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Clinchy etal., 1995: 15-20).
或者可以这样：
Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Clinchy, Graff , Goldberger, and Tarule, 1995: 15-20).
（注意：文内已出现作者名，括号里就只要加年代、页码）
In The Age of Voltaire, the Durants portray eighteenth century England as a minor force in the world of music and art (1999: 214-248).
（注意：如在引文中提及整个文献及作者姓氏、年代，夹注如下）：
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
Slade‟s revision of Form and Style incorporates changes made in the 1995 edition of the MLA Handbook (Slade, 1995).
（注意：集体作者如果组织名称太长，第一次提及时可采用全称后加注缩略，如下：）
The annual report revealed substantial progress in fundraising (American Museum of Natural History, 2002: 12, hereafter AMNH).
以后直接用缩略形式做夹注
The report surveys the major problems in fundraising (AMNH, 2002: 15).
（注意：引用多卷本中的一卷如下：）
Between the years 1945 and 1972, the political party system in the United States underwent profound changes (Schlesinger, vol. 4).
或者：
Schlesinger pointed out the profound changes the political party system in the United States underwent between 1945 and 1972 (vol. 4, 98-104).
（注意：引用同一作者的两篇以上的文献, 可以分别以文献名的缩略形式注释） Shaughnessy points out that “the beginning writer does not know how writers behave” (Errors 79; Diving 68).
或者：
Empirical studies on student learning carried out since the 70‟s have found that students‟ learning outcomes to a great extent depend on their choice of learning approaches (Biggs, Empirical Studies; Learning Strategies).
（注意：书名缩略形式用斜体，文章名缩略形式用正体，实词首字母大写，与参考文献写法保持一致）
（转引）
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (qtd. in Boswell, 1995, vol. 2, 450)
3.2 The Relationship between Schema Theory and These Three Factors（二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
The reason why students ….
（注意：各层次标题不得置于页面的最后一行）
4 The Three Types of Schematic Knowledge and Their Application（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
4.1 Linguistic Schemata and Their Application （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Linguistic schemata refer to ….
4.2 Formal Schemata and Their Application （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Formal schemata are about….
4.3 Content Schemata and Their Application （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Content schemata …
5 Conclusion（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
(注意：conclusion部分，至少250以上英文)
The study of metaphor is, in essence, the study of how metaphor works. It is the nucleus of metaphor study. Modern scholars discard the perspective that metaphor is a device of rhetoric, an attachment to language, and claim that metaphor is of cognition and is omnipresent; it is a way of human thinking. Moreover, they hold that metaphor creates similarity instead of comparing two things which are based on the preexisting similarity. Hence, the mechanism of metaphor is to interpret how similarity is created. Black‟s theory and Lakoffian theory, due to some defects and deficiencies, are not able to give a clear description of the creation of similarity. They endeavor to expound the appearance of a new structure after a novel metaphor, but they fail to do that and result in “isomorphism”.
The mechanism of metaphor is sophisticated. It is a result of various factors.
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
Interacting, projecting and blending constitute the process. It is obvious that BT, on the basis of the two above-mentioned theories, focuses on solving the problem of the “isomorphism”-structure. To avoid committing the same mistake that all the knowledge, the features mapped from the source domain and the structure (topology) of the target domain are interwoven…….
注：如果层次多，可参看具体说明。
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following persons for their help and support during my research and writing of this thesis.
First of all….
Secondly, ….
Thirdly, ….
Finally, I would like to thank my parents for their consistent support and help for my studies. Responsibility for any remaining error is mine alone.
本页注意事项：
1. 单独成页，三号Times New Roman，加粗居中；
2. 致谢内容为小四号Times New Roman；
3. 记住：可以不拘一格，不用罗列一二三四；
4. 内容不要照抄以下的，请自己写几段正确的英文！
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
Bibliography
Carter, Ronald, ed. Language and Literature: An Introductory Reader in Stylistics. London:
George Allen & Unwin, 1982.
——. Literary Text and Language Study. London: Edward Arnold, 1982.
Gill, Rosalind. “Postfeminist media culture: Elements of a sensibility”. European
Journal of Cultural Studies. Jun 19 2007. 14 May 2010 .
Gross, Larry. “My Media Studies: Cultivation to Participation”. Television & New Media.
23 September 2008. 14 May 2010 .
Hornby, A.S. The Oxford advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. 6th ed. Trans.
Shi Xiaoshu, et al. Ed. Sally Wehmeier. Oxford University, 2004.
Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History, Culture. London: Routledge, 1992.
Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility. New York: Routledge, 1995.
陈淑萍，“语用等效与归化翻译策略”，《中国翻译》2003年05期。
沈苏儒，《论信达雅：严复翻译理论研究》，商务印书馆，1998年。
——沈苏儒，《翻译的最高境界“信达雅”漫谈》，中国对外翻译出版公司，2006年。 王璨，“论归化翻译的层次”，《 武汉理工大学学报》，2007年第4期。
王宏志，《重释“信达雅”：二十世纪中国翻译研究》，东方出版中心，1999年。
此页注意事项：
1. 参考书目单独成页。
2. 参考书目不用 [1], [2]等编号；
3. 汉语句号是空心圆点；
4. 参考书目排列，先排完英语参考书目，后汉语；按照字母顺序排列；
5. 参考书目至少5本，体现你目前资料利用的现状。在夹注中没有体现的参考
书目，不能列在此处，要去掉。
摘 要（三号宋体，加粗，居中）
作为交际活动的重要组成部分和五项最基本的语言技能之一，英语听力训练与其能力的提高日益受到人们的重视。为了能和使用英语的人士流利地用英语进行交流，并在考试中取得好成绩，许多大学生都在坚持听力练习。然而，一个不容忽视的事实却是训练结果总是不尽人意。就大学生而言，在经过了许多年的英语训练与学习之后，听力理解部分依然是其弱项和最为害怕的部分。究其原因是因为学生过于注重听力训练而缺少相关理论的指导。
在各种理论当中，图式理论对听力理解的实践有一定的指导作用。因为听力理解的过程就是学生运用脑中已有的背景知识，即图式，来理解所听到的新信息并进而了解和掌握整篇内容的过程。
本文作者首先分析了当代大学生听力学习的现状，继而指出影响大学生英语听力水平提高的三个主要障碍，即语言障碍、文化障碍和心理障碍，并分析它们与图式理论的关系，说明图式理论对听力理解水平的提高有着极其重要的指导作用。其次，作者从图式理论对改善英语听力实践的指导意义出发，通过一些具体实例分析了图式理论的三种主要图式，即语言图式、形式图式和内容图式，并分别说明它们对促进英语听力能力的重要作用。最后，作者强调指出，对大学生而言，建立足够的图式并把三种图式与听力训练实践有机结合，可以有效地提高大学生的英语听力水平。
关键词（小四号宋体、加粗）：（冒号）图式；图式理论；英语听力练习
此页注意事项：
1. 汉文摘要，单独成页；
2. 中文摘要内容不少于500汉字，为小四号宋体;
3. 关键词小四号宋体，每个关键词之间用分号分隔，关键词一般3-5个，除专有
名词外，其他单词首字母不大写；
4. 注：该论文从摘要到Bibliography部分的行间距，全部设置为固定值，
24磅。
Abstract（三号，Times New Roman，居中）
As a central component of language communication and one of the five basic language skills, English listening has been paid more and more attention by foreign language learners, seeking an improvement in their listening ability. In order to communicate fluently with English-speaking people in English, and also to ensure high scores in English examinations, many university students keep practicing their listening. However, one fact that can‟t be overlooked is that the training result is quite unsatisfactory. As for university students, after so many years of English training and learning, listening comprehension part remains their weakness and headache. One reason lies in the fact that students attach too much importance to the practice while they are short of the guidance of relevant theories.
Of all the theories, schema theory has practical value to listening practice. This is because listening comprehension process is one during which students resort to their existing knowledge stored in their minds, namely, schemata, try to make sense of what they hear and then learn about and grasp the whole meaning of the listening material.
According to the current situation of college students‟ listening comprehension, the author concludes the following three obstacles in English listening: language, culture and psychology, and then analyzes the relationship between schema theory and these obstacles, aiming to state the significance of schema theory to the improvement of one‟s listening ability. ….（略）
Key words（小四号Times New Roman，加粗）: （冒号）schemata; schema theory; English listening practice; application
此页注意事项：
1. 英文摘要，单独成页；
2. 英文摘要内容应与中文摘要内容相对应，不能省略意思。小四号Times New
Roman；
3. 英文关键词与中文关键词必须对应，小四号Times New Roman，关键词之间用分
号分隔）
Contents（三号Times New Roman，加粗，居中）
摘 要 .................................................................................................................................... I Abstract ................................................................................................................................. II
1 Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1
2 Schema Theory ................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Schema Theory ......................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Two Basic Processes ................................................................................................. 2
3 The Present Situation of College Students‟ Listening Practice .......................................... 4
3.1 Three Obstacles in English Listening ....................................................................... 5
3.2 The Relationship between Schema Theory and These Three Factors ...................... 7
4 The Three Types of Schematic Knowledge and Their Application .................................... 7
4.1 Linguistic Schemata and Their Application.............................................................. 7
4.2 Formal Schemata and Their Application .................................................................. 8
4.3 Content Schemata and Their Application ................................................................. 7
5 Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 7
Acknowledgements................................................................................................................ 9
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................ 10
此页注意事项：
1. 单独成页；
2. 字体小四号Times New Roman；
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Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
1 Introduction（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
（正文：首行空4个英文字符格，小四号Times New Roman。下同）The study of metaphor has long been with us and the focus of the study is the mechanism of metaphor. It is the most significant and indispensable part of the study. For more than two thousand years, the study is carried on mainly from the perspective of rhetoric, viewing metaphor as a device of rhetoric, an embellishment of language. The representative of the theories in this long period is Aristotle‟s Comparison Theory and Quintilian‟s Theory of Substitution. Because metaphor is not only a rhetorical phenomenon, but also one of cognition, the interpretation force of these theories is very limited. In 1936, I.A. Richards put forward Interaction Theory. Later Max Black made an elaboration of the work of his. Interaction Theory claims that metaphor is a cognitively irreducible phenomenon that works not at the level of word combination, but much deeper, arising out of the interaction between the conceptual structures underlying the words. But the ones who really turn the study of metaphor to a new page are George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. The mark of this change is the publication of the book named Metaphors We Live by. The theory of Lakoff and Johnson‟s is Conceptual Metaphor Theory. As these scholars regard metaphor as the creation of similarity, their theories concentrate on how the similarity is created and how the new meaning is produced though their interpretations are not perfect. Recently, another theory appeared—Conceptual Integration Theory or Blending Theory. Comparatively speaking, it is more convincing on the mechanism of metaphor than the other two.
此部分注意事项：
1. 从Introduction部分开始，就是正文了。
2. 正文开始加页眉和页脚，正文奇数页眉为本人毕业设计（论文）英文题目，
偶数页眉为“西南石油大学本科毕业设计(论文)”，页码在页脚，页眉和页脚
均为五号宋体、居中。
3. 注意：Introduction部分字数不少于400字。
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
2 Schema Theory（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
2.1 Schema Theory （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
In accordance with theory, schema is not only the basis of cognition but also the knowledge framework stored up in people‟s memories to express general conceptions. Pearson thinks schema is the pictures or associations emerging in people‟s memories when they read or hear some information (Pearson, 1987: 89)（正文中的夹注，小四号Times New Roman。 下同）. Cook points out that schema is the knowledge or background information which has been stored up in people‟s minds, namely, ….
注意：夹注中的名字，必须在后面参考文献中找得到对应项，否则将是伪引证。
2.2 Two Basic Processes （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Andrew Ortony, one of the most influential writers on metaphor, has pointed out, and there are few who would disagree with him, that it is still the case that “Any serious study of metaphor is almost obliged to start with the works of Aristotle” (Ortony, 1993: 3).（注意：此处指引文来源：作者，年代，页码）
In Poetics, Aristotle expounds the essence, function and the way of explanation of metaphor as three nuclei. He defines metaphor as “the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion” (Aristotle, 1972: 71). Then he gives four kinds of metaphor: 引文：前
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Since „lying at anchor‟ is a species of the genus „lying‟, one can say „there lies my ship‟ (genus-to-species metaphor), since „ten thousand‟ is a species of a „large number‟, one can say verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought (species-to-genus metaphor). Since „to draw away‟ and „to cleave‟ are each a species of the genus „taking away‟, one can
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
say with blade of bronze drew away the life (species-to-species metaphor). And since old age
is to life as evening to the day, one can say that old age is the evening of life (ibid.). (注
意：此符号ibid.意为同上，引文出处与上相同。本例为整段引用，
即block quotation， 前后空五号字一行 )
All metaphors, Aristotle believes, fall into at least one of these four categories, although analogy metaphors are the most pleasing. Aristotle also holds that metaphor can make the prosaic style charming, and stresses that it can only be confined to poetry (ibid.
72). This perspective leads to the later theorists making distinction between poetic language and everyday language. Especially in Chapter 21 and 22 of Poetics, Aristotle states that every word “is either current, or strange, or metaphor, or ornamental, or newly coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered” (ibid. 70). It is obvious that Aristotle classifies metaphors as lying outside normal language use. They are deviant or aberrant forms of discourse. He also holds that metaphor has no cognitive value and is merely an embellishment of language (Kittay, 1987: 1). Also in this chapter of Poetics, he elaborates how metaphors are unusual and discusses the relationship between metaphor and genius, viewing metaphor as a talent of epic poets and tragedians:
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1行 The greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. This alone can not be imported by another; it is the mark of genius—for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances ( Aristotle, 1976: 72).
As Hawks writes about Aristotle‟s account of metaphor:
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1行 is abundantly clear that, as an entity in itself, metaphor is regarded as a decorative addition to language, to be used in specific ways, and at specific times and places (ibid. 8-9).
In Rhetoric, Aristotle says that the best metaphors are those that achieve the effect of
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
bringing things vividly before the eyes of the audience. He argues that this effect is “produced by words which refer to things in action”( ibid. 92-93). “The best image involves a metaphor” (ibid. 96). From the above statements, we know that Aristotle views metaphor as a rhetorical device and an embellishment of language. Finally he establishes his theory on metaphor—Comparison Theory. It is the earliest theory in the history of the study of metaphor. Its main gist is:
1 Metaphors are matters of language and not matters of thought or action.
There is no such thing as metaphorical thought or action.
2 A metaphor of the form “A is B” is a linguistic expression whose meaning is
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1行 the same as a corresponding linguistic expression of the form “A is like B, in respect X, Y, Z…” “Respects X, Y, Z…” characterize what we have called “isolated similarities”. 3 A metaphor can therefore only describe preexisting similarities. It can‟t create
similarities (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980: 153).（注意：如果在论文中
引用同一作者的不同的著作，应加上出版年代以
示区别）
3 The Present Situation of College Students’ Listening Practice（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning is a resultant of their interaction” (Richards, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/502600/IA-Richards) .（注意：如果在网上引用的东西，有作者无页码，或没有其它信息，应加上网址；如果连作者都没有，加上网址在括号内，如下：）
In the simplest formulation, when we use a metaphor we have two thoughts of different things active together and supported by a single word, or phrase, whose meaning
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
is
a resultant of their interaction” (Richards, http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/502600/IA-Richards)
3.1 Three Obstacles in English Listening （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
According to a research by professor Liu of Northeast Forestry …..
（注意：引文来自于中文作者，用准确的汉语拼音表述）
But even in literary translation, linguistics is hardly a burden. Some famous Chinese scholars pointed out that “If one sees linguistics as a body of rules regulating language, translators most probably will yawn with boredom. If it signifies the use of words and locutions to fit an occasion, there is nothing to stop translators from embracing linguistics.” (Wang Zongyan and Shen Jiaxuan, 2011: 38).
(注意：作者有三个以上，则在第一位作者的姓氏后写上et al.以示其余姓氏的省略，或列上全部姓氏，夹注中的形式应与参考文献中的形式保持一致)，如下：
Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Clinchy etal., 1995: 15-20).
或者可以这样：
Modern Literary studies have their origin in classic studies (Clinchy, Graff , Goldberger, and Tarule, 1995: 15-20).
（注意：文内已出现作者名，括号里就只要加年代、页码）
In The Age of Voltaire, the Durants portray eighteenth century England as a minor force in the world of music and art (1999: 214-248).
（注意：如在引文中提及整个文献及作者姓氏、年代，夹注如下）：
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
Slade‟s revision of Form and Style incorporates changes made in the 1995 edition of the MLA Handbook (Slade, 1995).
（注意：集体作者如果组织名称太长，第一次提及时可采用全称后加注缩略，如下：）
The annual report revealed substantial progress in fundraising (American Museum of Natural History, 2002: 12, hereafter AMNH).
以后直接用缩略形式做夹注
The report surveys the major problems in fundraising (AMNH, 2002: 15).
（注意：引用多卷本中的一卷如下：）
Between the years 1945 and 1972, the political party system in the United States underwent profound changes (Schlesinger, vol. 4).
或者：
Schlesinger pointed out the profound changes the political party system in the United States underwent between 1945 and 1972 (vol. 4, 98-104).
（注意：引用同一作者的两篇以上的文献, 可以分别以文献名的缩略形式注释） Shaughnessy points out that “the beginning writer does not know how writers behave” (Errors 79; Diving 68).
或者：
Empirical studies on student learning carried out since the 70‟s have found that students‟ learning outcomes to a great extent depend on their choice of learning approaches (Biggs, Empirical Studies; Learning Strategies).
（注意：书名缩略形式用斜体，文章名缩略形式用正体，实词首字母大写，与参考文献写法保持一致）
（转引）
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
Samuel Johnson admitted that Edmund Burke was an “extraordinary man” (qtd. in Boswell, 1995, vol. 2, 450)
3.2 The Relationship between Schema Theory and These Three Factors（二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
The reason why students ….
（注意：各层次标题不得置于页面的最后一行）
4 The Three Types of Schematic Knowledge and Their Application（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
4.1 Linguistic Schemata and Their Application （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Linguistic schemata refer to ….
4.2 Formal Schemata and Their Application （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Formal schemata are about….
4.3 Content Schemata and Their Application （二级标题，小三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
Content schemata …
5 Conclusion（一级标题，三号Times New Roman，顶格，加粗）
(注意：conclusion部分，至少250以上英文)
The study of metaphor is, in essence, the study of how metaphor works. It is the nucleus of metaphor study. Modern scholars discard the perspective that metaphor is a device of rhetoric, an attachment to language, and claim that metaphor is of cognition and is omnipresent; it is a way of human thinking. Moreover, they hold that metaphor creates similarity instead of comparing two things which are based on the preexisting similarity. Hence, the mechanism of metaphor is to interpret how similarity is created. Black‟s theory and Lakoffian theory, due to some defects and deficiencies, are not able to give a clear description of the creation of similarity. They endeavor to expound the appearance of a new structure after a novel metaphor, but they fail to do that and result in “isomorphism”.
The mechanism of metaphor is sophisticated. It is a result of various factors.
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
Interacting, projecting and blending constitute the process. It is obvious that BT, on the basis of the two above-mentioned theories, focuses on solving the problem of the “isomorphism”-structure. To avoid committing the same mistake that all the knowledge, the features mapped from the source domain and the structure (topology) of the target domain are interwoven…….
注：如果层次多，可参看具体说明。
Application of Schema Theory in English Listening Practice
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following persons for their help and support during my research and writing of this thesis.
First of all….
Secondly, ….
Thirdly, ….
Finally, I would like to thank my parents for their consistent support and help for my studies. Responsibility for any remaining error is mine alone.
本页注意事项：
1. 单独成页，三号Times New Roman，加粗居中；
2. 致谢内容为小四号Times New Roman；
3. 记住：可以不拘一格，不用罗列一二三四；
4. 内容不要照抄以下的，请自己写几段正确的英文！
西南石油大学本科毕业设计（论文）
Bibliography
Carter, Ronald, ed. Language and Literature: An Introductory Reader in Stylistics. London:
George Allen & Unwin, 1982.
——. Literary Text and Language Study. London: Edward Arnold, 1982.
Gill, Rosalind. “Postfeminist media culture: Elements of a sensibility”. European
Journal of Cultural Studies. Jun 19 2007. 14 May 2010 .
Gross, Larry. “My Media Studies: Cultivation to Participation”. Television & New Media.
23 September 2008. 14 May 2010 .
Hornby, A.S. The Oxford advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary. 6th ed. Trans.
Shi Xiaoshu, et al. Ed. Sally Wehmeier. Oxford University, 2004.
Lefevere, Andre. Translation, History, Culture. London: Routledge, 1992.
Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility. New York: Routledge, 1995.
陈淑萍，“语用等效与归化翻译策略”，《中国翻译》2003年05期。
沈苏儒，《论信达雅：严复翻译理论研究》，商务印书馆，1998年。
——沈苏儒，《翻译的最高境界“信达雅”漫谈》，中国对外翻译出版公司，2006年。 王璨，“论归化翻译的层次”，《 武汉理工大学学报》，2007年第4期。
王宏志，《重释“信达雅”：二十世纪中国翻译研究》，东方出版中心，1999年。
此页注意事项：
1. 参考书目单独成页。
2. 参考书目不用 [1], [2]等编号；
3. 汉语句号是空心圆点；
4. 参考书目排列，先排完英语参考书目，后汉语；按照字母顺序排列；
5. 参考书目至少5本，体现你目前资料利用的现状。在夹注中没有体现的参考
书目，不能列在此处，要去掉。