http://www.paper.edu.cn
A Comparison of the Elements of Workers and Managers in American and Japanese Business Management Practices
SHI Xiang
(Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China)
Abstract
Both American and Japanese business management systems have been focuses of
research in the academia. This paper puts focus on the different cultural values and the
worker-related respects of American and Japanese business management practices.
Besides the American and Japanese workers’ characteristics and attitudes in their jobs,
the management attitudes and policies toward workers are also compared and analyzed.
On the basis of comparison and analysis of the American and Japanese workers and
managers, this paper annotates and argues for T. Fujisawa’s statement ---- “Japanese
and American management is ninety-five percent the same, and differs in all important
respects.”
Keywords: comparison, cultural values, workers, managers, American management,
Japanese management
1. Introduction
Americans and Japanese share a range of commonalties in business management, such as the business structures, operation functions and corporation policies, which makes the two seemingly the same. But substantial differences stand out when research is done to the deep and fundamental respects. Other than the different languages spoken on the two sides of the Pacific, significant differences exist in almost all respects like the workers’ characteristics and attitudes, the management attitude, the decision making process, the management accounting and control. Given the importance of people, i.e. no management policy or business operation can be carried out without workers who are the bulk of all businesses, among all the many cross-Pacific differences this paper focuses on the worker-related respects of American and Japanese management practices. Comparison and analysis are done not only to the workers’ characteristics and attitudes, but also to the management attitudes and policies toward workers. Through this paper, the author annotates and argues for T. Fujisawa’s statement ---- “Japanese and American management is ninety-five percent the same, and differs in all important respects.”［1］
2. Annotation of Fujisawa’s Statement
Generally speaking, the American management and the Japanese management are the same or similar in most superficial respects. Both have hierarchy structures and focus on the market. The executives are responsible to the shareholders. And both of them segment their organizations into different divisions carrying out different responsibilities. In short, businesses on both sides of the Pacific have the same - 1 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
structures, operation functions, corporation policies and business goals.
However, it is easy to note the many differences if the observers give a closer look into the fundamental respects. The most basic difference, which can influence almost all other functions, is the people, or workers. Apparently, the workers in the American firms are quite different from their counterparts in the Japanese firms. All the business operations function via workers, therefore how the workers differ can immediately reflect how different the organizations are. Figuratively, it is like two houses which share commonalities in all respects, even the indoor decorations are all the same, but the occupants in the two houses have substantial differences. These two houses are the American firms and the Japanese firms, while the occupants are the American workers and the Japanese workers respectively.
3. Workers’ Characteristics and Attitudes
Cultural differences play an important role in the differences of workers’ characteristics and attitudes across the Pacific Ocean. The American characteristics are greatly different from the Japanese, and this leads to different behaviors and performances of the workers.
3.1. Self Image
In Japan, each person is believed to belong to a group. The Japanese establish identities that incorporate friends, relatives and coworkers in an open way to share feelings and improve on weaknesses.［2］ The workers’ relationship within the work group is psychologically important. On the other hand, the American workers are individualist and strive to appear as macho and self sufficient as possible.
3.2. Nationalism
The Japanese have a very strong sense of nationalism and believe that they are superior to all other races. Although Americans also have a strong sense of national pride, there are many racial conflicts in the USA that reduce their ability to work together. ［3］
3.3. Social Cooperation and Willingness to Work Together
The Japanese appear to be more cooperative and willing to work together in teams. To maintain and strengthen work group relationships, Japanese workers spend a considerable amount of time socializing after work. It is easy to find Japanese managers who wear the same uniforms with workers at workplaces. This willingness to dress and act alike is very different from the typical Americans who are taught to be competitive to achieve star status.［4］
3.4. Respect for Authority
The Japanese workers appear to have more respect for authority than their American counterparts, which contributes to higher efficiency in Japanese business operations.
3.5. Attitude to Work
The Japanese tend to be living to work, while the Americans, on the contrary, - 2 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
work to live. As a result, the Japanese are willing to sacrifice their personal lives for the company and are more tolerant of long hours and uncomfortable working conditions than the Americans.［5］ The Japanese can frequently work when they are sick and even decline their vacations to avoid reducing productivity. But on the other side of the Pacific, the American workers have less tolerance for discomfort. They are more interested in what the company can do for them than what they can do to the company. Normally they take all vacations and sick days allowed.
3.6. Attitude to Workplace, Property and Environment
The Japanese keep their cities and factories spotless, where trash and cigarette butts are rarely seen. Each worker keeps his or her workstation clean.［6］ While the American workers tend to be less conscious about the tidiness of their workplaces and garbage can be found around.
3.7. Loyalty
Japanese workers are more loyal to their employers than American workers, and usually they are willing to serve the company for a lifetime.［7］ American workers, on the other hand, tend to be loyal to themselves and frequently use a company only to gain enough experience and expertise to move up to a better paid position in another organization.
Workers are one of the most fundamental elements of business organizations. It is through them that all management policies are carried out. Therefore workers’ behaviors are crucial to the management. Due to the substantial differences between American and Japanese workers’ characteristics and attitudes, their behaviors differ greatly, which impacts remarkably upon the management on both sides of the Pacific.
4. Management Attitudes and Policies to Workers
In addition to the workers’ characteristics and attitudes, the management attitudes and policies to workers in the two countries are also different.
4.1. Workers’ Suggestions
Usually, Japanese workers are expected to provide suggestions to improve their own operating efficiency as well as the organization’s overall productivity. And such suggestions are often given positive reaction by the management. On the other hand, though suggestion systems are also used in the American firms, employees’ suggestions are viewed more as a threat to management.［8］ Those American workers who constantly recommend changes are likely to be labeled as troublemakers.
4.2. Employment and Training
Japanese managers view the employees as their most important resources.［9］ In order to develop these resources to the fullest potential, the Japanese management offers lifetime employment, internal promotions, considerable cross training and job rotation and frequently a “no layoff” policy.［10］ In this way the Japanese management uses human resources as a competitive weapon. In the US, however, workers are routinely laid off during economic depressions and fewer internal promotions are offered to the workers. The trust level between the American management and the workers is comparatively low. The managers appear to prefer investing in “buying” - 3 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
trained workers from other firms to providing internal training.
4.3. Incentives
The typical Japanese incentive system appears to be quite different from the American system. The Japanese place considerable emphasis on employee recognition including simple pats on the back, business cards for all workers, trophies, company pins, plaques, medals, group approval, and charts over work stations to show goals and achievements.［11］ Although there are some small cash awards, Japanese managers seem to use psychological incentives more than material incentives. On the other hand, the American incentive system is as simple as salary increases, promotions and bonuses.
4.4. Participation in Decision-Making
Japanese workers are expected to participate in consensus decisions where the group attempts to come to a unanimous decision. The group leader makes the final decision, and all members of the group are expected to accept it as their own decision. They would not accept voting, because voting denotes winners and losers.［12］ In the consensus system, there should be only winners. American workers participate in decision making less frequently than their Japanese counterparts, and they are often provided with only pseudo participation in decision-making. The managers make most decisions. And it seems that the Americans have an overwhelming preference of democratic voting to draw a line between winners and losers.
4.5. Accessibility of Managers
Another difference between Japanese and American management is the accessibility of managers to workers. In Japan, managers wear the same uniforms as line workers and work in offices inside the work cites which are open to workers. But American managers are generally inaccessible to workers and appear to be aloof to the workers.［13］ They work in air-conditioned offices which are separated from the work cites.
As another important element of business organizations, managers are the policy makers and all business operations and they assess performances. Their behaviors are therefore essential to the business. But there are a series of differences between American and Japanese management attitudes and policies to workers. Thus the workers’ reactions would be greatly different, and as a result, the management functions in different ways on the two sides of the Pacific.
5. Superficially Same but Essentially Different
As two major elements of business, workers and managers are decisive forces for the management. Because there are substantial differences between the American people and the Japanese people, management in the two countries differs. To illustrate, think about two twins who have almost the same physical appearances but totally different personalities. Though they look, or even sound, the same, their behaviors differ. Likewise, the American management looks almost the same as its Japanese counterpart, but the “business personalities” are different. And these non-physical differences can make the physical sameness function differently.
People are one of the most basic elements of all businesses, and they play an - 4 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
essential role in business management. Therefore, the differences between people lead to the differences between organizations. In this sense, although American and Japanese management is superficially and physically the same, they are essentially different.
6. Conclusion
American management and Japanese management share a series of sameness such as their physical structures, business goals and operational functions. Superficially they look very similar. But essentially all management functions through people without whom no business can exist. Therefore, people play a crucial role in business management. Japanese people differ in nearly all important respects from Americans. Their differences in cultural values lead to different thoughts and behaviors. And furthermore, these differences affect the management functions.
This paper compares the Japanese workers’ characteristics and attitudes with the Americans, and the management attitudes and policies to workers on the two sides of the Pacific Ocean are compared as well. Due to the great differences between the Japanese culture and the American culture, the differences between the two peoples are huge. As a result, management in these two countries functions differently, although they appear to be physically similar. In this regard, Fujisawa’s statement is therefore supported that Japanese and American business management differs in all important respects despite the ninety-five percent sameness.
References
［1］ T. Fujisawa (1986) From the Atlantic to the Pacific Century: Cross-cultural Management
Reviewed. The Journal of Management 12(2): 295
［2］ Dore, Ronald (1973) British Factory Japanese Factory. Berkeley: University of California
Press
［3, 5, 8］ Blythe, Stephen E. (1979) Japanese Management Systems: A Comparison with U.S.
Management Systems and Their Application to U.S. Industry. London: University
Microfilms International
［4, 11, 12］ Hayashi, Shuji (1988) Culture and Management in Japan. Tokyo: University of Tokyo
Press
［6, 7, 9］ Cohen, Isaac (1990) American Management and British Labor. New York: Greenwood
Press
［10］ Harukiyo, Hasegawa & Hook, Glenn D. (1998) Japanese Business Management. London:
Routledge
［13］ Gordon, Donald Duncan (1988) Japanese Management in America and Britain. Sydney:
Avebury
- 5 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
美国和日本企业管理运作中员工和管理者要素的比较
施翔
（南京航空航天大学，江苏 南京210016）
摘 要：美国和日本的企业管理制度一直都是学术界研究的热点。本文将重点放在美国和日
本企业管理运作中不同的文化价值观及与员工相关的几个要素。本文比较和分析了美国和日本员工的特点和在工作中的态度以及管理层对待员工的态度和政策。在这些比较和分析的基础上，本文诠释并支持了T.Fujisawa 的论点：“日本和美国的企业管理百分之九十五都是相同的，但却在所有重要的方面存在差异。”
关键词：比较，文化价值观，员工，管理者，美国企业管理，日本企业管理
- 6 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
A Comparison of the Elements of Workers and Managers in American and Japanese Business Management Practices
SHI Xiang
(Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 210016, China)
Abstract
Both American and Japanese business management systems have been focuses of
research in the academia. This paper puts focus on the different cultural values and the
worker-related respects of American and Japanese business management practices.
Besides the American and Japanese workers’ characteristics and attitudes in their jobs,
the management attitudes and policies toward workers are also compared and analyzed.
On the basis of comparison and analysis of the American and Japanese workers and
managers, this paper annotates and argues for T. Fujisawa’s statement ---- “Japanese
and American management is ninety-five percent the same, and differs in all important
respects.”
Keywords: comparison, cultural values, workers, managers, American management,
Japanese management
1. Introduction
Americans and Japanese share a range of commonalties in business management, such as the business structures, operation functions and corporation policies, which makes the two seemingly the same. But substantial differences stand out when research is done to the deep and fundamental respects. Other than the different languages spoken on the two sides of the Pacific, significant differences exist in almost all respects like the workers’ characteristics and attitudes, the management attitude, the decision making process, the management accounting and control. Given the importance of people, i.e. no management policy or business operation can be carried out without workers who are the bulk of all businesses, among all the many cross-Pacific differences this paper focuses on the worker-related respects of American and Japanese management practices. Comparison and analysis are done not only to the workers’ characteristics and attitudes, but also to the management attitudes and policies toward workers. Through this paper, the author annotates and argues for T. Fujisawa’s statement ---- “Japanese and American management is ninety-five percent the same, and differs in all important respects.”［1］
2. Annotation of Fujisawa’s Statement
Generally speaking, the American management and the Japanese management are the same or similar in most superficial respects. Both have hierarchy structures and focus on the market. The executives are responsible to the shareholders. And both of them segment their organizations into different divisions carrying out different responsibilities. In short, businesses on both sides of the Pacific have the same - 1 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
structures, operation functions, corporation policies and business goals.
However, it is easy to note the many differences if the observers give a closer look into the fundamental respects. The most basic difference, which can influence almost all other functions, is the people, or workers. Apparently, the workers in the American firms are quite different from their counterparts in the Japanese firms. All the business operations function via workers, therefore how the workers differ can immediately reflect how different the organizations are. Figuratively, it is like two houses which share commonalities in all respects, even the indoor decorations are all the same, but the occupants in the two houses have substantial differences. These two houses are the American firms and the Japanese firms, while the occupants are the American workers and the Japanese workers respectively.
3. Workers’ Characteristics and Attitudes
Cultural differences play an important role in the differences of workers’ characteristics and attitudes across the Pacific Ocean. The American characteristics are greatly different from the Japanese, and this leads to different behaviors and performances of the workers.
3.1. Self Image
In Japan, each person is believed to belong to a group. The Japanese establish identities that incorporate friends, relatives and coworkers in an open way to share feelings and improve on weaknesses.［2］ The workers’ relationship within the work group is psychologically important. On the other hand, the American workers are individualist and strive to appear as macho and self sufficient as possible.
3.2. Nationalism
The Japanese have a very strong sense of nationalism and believe that they are superior to all other races. Although Americans also have a strong sense of national pride, there are many racial conflicts in the USA that reduce their ability to work together. ［3］
3.3. Social Cooperation and Willingness to Work Together
The Japanese appear to be more cooperative and willing to work together in teams. To maintain and strengthen work group relationships, Japanese workers spend a considerable amount of time socializing after work. It is easy to find Japanese managers who wear the same uniforms with workers at workplaces. This willingness to dress and act alike is very different from the typical Americans who are taught to be competitive to achieve star status.［4］
3.4. Respect for Authority
The Japanese workers appear to have more respect for authority than their American counterparts, which contributes to higher efficiency in Japanese business operations.
3.5. Attitude to Work
The Japanese tend to be living to work, while the Americans, on the contrary, - 2 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
work to live. As a result, the Japanese are willing to sacrifice their personal lives for the company and are more tolerant of long hours and uncomfortable working conditions than the Americans.［5］ The Japanese can frequently work when they are sick and even decline their vacations to avoid reducing productivity. But on the other side of the Pacific, the American workers have less tolerance for discomfort. They are more interested in what the company can do for them than what they can do to the company. Normally they take all vacations and sick days allowed.
3.6. Attitude to Workplace, Property and Environment
The Japanese keep their cities and factories spotless, where trash and cigarette butts are rarely seen. Each worker keeps his or her workstation clean.［6］ While the American workers tend to be less conscious about the tidiness of their workplaces and garbage can be found around.
3.7. Loyalty
Japanese workers are more loyal to their employers than American workers, and usually they are willing to serve the company for a lifetime.［7］ American workers, on the other hand, tend to be loyal to themselves and frequently use a company only to gain enough experience and expertise to move up to a better paid position in another organization.
Workers are one of the most fundamental elements of business organizations. It is through them that all management policies are carried out. Therefore workers’ behaviors are crucial to the management. Due to the substantial differences between American and Japanese workers’ characteristics and attitudes, their behaviors differ greatly, which impacts remarkably upon the management on both sides of the Pacific.
4. Management Attitudes and Policies to Workers
In addition to the workers’ characteristics and attitudes, the management attitudes and policies to workers in the two countries are also different.
4.1. Workers’ Suggestions
Usually, Japanese workers are expected to provide suggestions to improve their own operating efficiency as well as the organization’s overall productivity. And such suggestions are often given positive reaction by the management. On the other hand, though suggestion systems are also used in the American firms, employees’ suggestions are viewed more as a threat to management.［8］ Those American workers who constantly recommend changes are likely to be labeled as troublemakers.
4.2. Employment and Training
Japanese managers view the employees as their most important resources.［9］ In order to develop these resources to the fullest potential, the Japanese management offers lifetime employment, internal promotions, considerable cross training and job rotation and frequently a “no layoff” policy.［10］ In this way the Japanese management uses human resources as a competitive weapon. In the US, however, workers are routinely laid off during economic depressions and fewer internal promotions are offered to the workers. The trust level between the American management and the workers is comparatively low. The managers appear to prefer investing in “buying” - 3 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
trained workers from other firms to providing internal training.
4.3. Incentives
The typical Japanese incentive system appears to be quite different from the American system. The Japanese place considerable emphasis on employee recognition including simple pats on the back, business cards for all workers, trophies, company pins, plaques, medals, group approval, and charts over work stations to show goals and achievements.［11］ Although there are some small cash awards, Japanese managers seem to use psychological incentives more than material incentives. On the other hand, the American incentive system is as simple as salary increases, promotions and bonuses.
4.4. Participation in Decision-Making
Japanese workers are expected to participate in consensus decisions where the group attempts to come to a unanimous decision. The group leader makes the final decision, and all members of the group are expected to accept it as their own decision. They would not accept voting, because voting denotes winners and losers.［12］ In the consensus system, there should be only winners. American workers participate in decision making less frequently than their Japanese counterparts, and they are often provided with only pseudo participation in decision-making. The managers make most decisions. And it seems that the Americans have an overwhelming preference of democratic voting to draw a line between winners and losers.
4.5. Accessibility of Managers
Another difference between Japanese and American management is the accessibility of managers to workers. In Japan, managers wear the same uniforms as line workers and work in offices inside the work cites which are open to workers. But American managers are generally inaccessible to workers and appear to be aloof to the workers.［13］ They work in air-conditioned offices which are separated from the work cites.
As another important element of business organizations, managers are the policy makers and all business operations and they assess performances. Their behaviors are therefore essential to the business. But there are a series of differences between American and Japanese management attitudes and policies to workers. Thus the workers’ reactions would be greatly different, and as a result, the management functions in different ways on the two sides of the Pacific.
5. Superficially Same but Essentially Different
As two major elements of business, workers and managers are decisive forces for the management. Because there are substantial differences between the American people and the Japanese people, management in the two countries differs. To illustrate, think about two twins who have almost the same physical appearances but totally different personalities. Though they look, or even sound, the same, their behaviors differ. Likewise, the American management looks almost the same as its Japanese counterpart, but the “business personalities” are different. And these non-physical differences can make the physical sameness function differently.
People are one of the most basic elements of all businesses, and they play an - 4 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
essential role in business management. Therefore, the differences between people lead to the differences between organizations. In this sense, although American and Japanese management is superficially and physically the same, they are essentially different.
6. Conclusion
American management and Japanese management share a series of sameness such as their physical structures, business goals and operational functions. Superficially they look very similar. But essentially all management functions through people without whom no business can exist. Therefore, people play a crucial role in business management. Japanese people differ in nearly all important respects from Americans. Their differences in cultural values lead to different thoughts and behaviors. And furthermore, these differences affect the management functions.
This paper compares the Japanese workers’ characteristics and attitudes with the Americans, and the management attitudes and policies to workers on the two sides of the Pacific Ocean are compared as well. Due to the great differences between the Japanese culture and the American culture, the differences between the two peoples are huge. As a result, management in these two countries functions differently, although they appear to be physically similar. In this regard, Fujisawa’s statement is therefore supported that Japanese and American business management differs in all important respects despite the ninety-five percent sameness.
References
［1］ T. Fujisawa (1986) From the Atlantic to the Pacific Century: Cross-cultural Management
Reviewed. The Journal of Management 12(2): 295
［2］ Dore, Ronald (1973) British Factory Japanese Factory. Berkeley: University of California
Press
［3, 5, 8］ Blythe, Stephen E. (1979) Japanese Management Systems: A Comparison with U.S.
Management Systems and Their Application to U.S. Industry. London: University
Microfilms International
［4, 11, 12］ Hayashi, Shuji (1988) Culture and Management in Japan. Tokyo: University of Tokyo
Press
［6, 7, 9］ Cohen, Isaac (1990) American Management and British Labor. New York: Greenwood
Press
［10］ Harukiyo, Hasegawa & Hook, Glenn D. (1998) Japanese Business Management. London:
Routledge
［13］ Gordon, Donald Duncan (1988) Japanese Management in America and Britain. Sydney:
Avebury
- 5 -
http://www.paper.edu.cn
美国和日本企业管理运作中员工和管理者要素的比较
施翔
（南京航空航天大学，江苏 南京210016）
摘 要：美国和日本的企业管理制度一直都是学术界研究的热点。本文将重点放在美国和日
本企业管理运作中不同的文化价值观及与员工相关的几个要素。本文比较和分析了美国和日本员工的特点和在工作中的态度以及管理层对待员工的态度和政策。在这些比较和分析的基础上，本文诠释并支持了T.Fujisawa 的论点：“日本和美国的企业管理百分之九十五都是相同的，但却在所有重要的方面存在差异。”
关键词：比较，文化价值观，员工，管理者，美国企业管理，日本企业管理
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