英语词汇学

英语词汇学

1 .idiom: An English idiom is a group of words with a special meaning different from the meaning of its constituent words. Idioms are usually semantically opaque, i.e. metaphorical rather than literal.

2. Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combing and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms: e.g. newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch).

3. complementaries (互补反义词):complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition. E.g. alive and dead, single and married, present and absent.

4. Polysemy (一次多义): A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings. E.g. the word fair has various meanings : “(of attitude, behaviour) just and honest”; “(of result) average, quite good”; “(of the weath er)clear and sunny”; “(of the mount)satisfactory, abundant”; “(of the skin)pale; light in color”; “clean, clear; with out blemish”

5.conceptual meaning(概念意义): Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. Take 'The sun rises in the east' for example. The word sun here means 'a heavenly body which gives off light, heat, and energy', a concept which is understood by anyone who speaks English.

6.affixation(派生法): Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base. (举例)

7.analogical creation a way to coin word by following an existing word already established

1) Single Word; telethon/talkathon-marathon//starquake/youthquake-earthquake chairperson/woman/one-chairman//cheese/beef/shrimpburger-hamburger

2) Phrase; sound/air/language/visional/cultural pollution-environment pollution swim/stay/stand in-sit in//botel/airtel/-motel

选择和判断

1. nonce word: (为特定场合的需要) 而临时造的词: A nonce word is a word used only "for the nonce"—to meet a need that is not expected to recur. Quark, for example, was a nonce word in English appearing only in James Joyce's Finnegans Wake until Murray Gell-Mann quoted it to name a new class of subatomic particle. The use of the term nonce word in this way was apparently the work of James Murray, the influential editor of the Oxford English Dictionary.

" Runcible spoon", from Edward Lear, which later came to describe a curved fork with a cutting edge.

2. grammatical/function words

Function words (or grammatical words or synsemantic words or structure-class words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. They signal the structural relationships that words have to one another and are the glue that holds sentences together. Thus, they serve as important elements to the structures of sentences.

e.g. articles, pronouns, conjunction

3. sense and reference

4. 造成歧义的原因(structural/lexical/ambiguity及其例子)

5. morpheme/stem/root

Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. (The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.)

Root —— A root is the basic form of a word, which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. (What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes. ) .e.g. “internationalists ” removing inter-, -al-, -ist , -s , leaves the root nation.

Stem —— a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. E.g. “internationalists ”, nation is a root and a stem as well.

a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix. a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.

6. motivation 什么?有几种?

Motivation refers to the connection betwween word-symbol and its sense.

Phonetic Motivation (拟声词) – the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. (Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning). Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang , ping-pang , crow by cocks, etc. Morphological Motivation ——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. (Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning). For instance, airmail means to “mail by air”, miniskirt is “a small skirt”。

Semantic Motivation ——refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explained the connection between literal sense and figurative sense of a word). E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.

7. seven types of meaning

(1) Conceptual meaning ------Logical, cognitive, or denotation content 逻辑的,认知的,或者外延的内容

conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.

Associative meaning:联想意义

(2) Connotative meaning------what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. 内涵意义:通过语言所指所传达的意义

(3) Social meaning-----what is communicated of the social circumstances of language

use. 社会意义:所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义

(4) Affective meaning-----what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.感情意义:所传达的关于说话人或作者感情,态度方面的意义

(5) Reflected meaning------what is communicated throght association with another sense of the same expression. 反射意义:通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义

(6) Collocative meaning------what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.搭配意义:通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。

(7) Thematic meaning----what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.主题意义:通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义

8. functional shift

In linguistics, functional shift occurs when an existing word takes on a new syntactic function. For example, the word like, formerly only used as a preposition in comparisons (as in "eats like a pig"), is now also used in the same way as the subordinating conjunction as in many dialects of English (as in "sounds like he means it"). The boundary between functional shift and conversion (the derivation of a new word from an existing word of identical form) is not well-defined, but it could be construed that conversion changes the lexical meaning and functional shift changes the syntactic meaning.

9. amelioration/degradation

10. synonyms 的分类

1)complete synonyms: two words are totally synonyms only if they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotation, affective and stylistic meaning. i.e. spirants and fricatives in phonetics, word-formation and word-building in lexicology, caecitis and typhlitis in medicine.

2) relative synonyms

i.g. angry, rage, fury, indignation and wrath are synonyms in denoting the emotional excitement induced by intense displeasure.

11. word 是什么?

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释

12. affix 的类型

Affixes —— Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes.

13. denominal suffix

14. loanshift/loan translation

(Linguistics) the adoption by one language of a phrase or compound word whose

components are literal translations of the components of a corresponding phrase or compound in a foreign language English ``superman'' is a loan translation from German ``Übermensch.'' Also called calque

15. types and examples of opposites

Types of Antonyms (according to the semantic opposition )

1) Contradictory terms – these antonyms are truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. They assertion of one is the denial of the other. E.g. alive—dead , present ——absent , male – female , boy – girl , true – false , same – different , imperfect – perfect

Such antonyms are non-gradable. They can not be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs like “very ” to qualify them. Single/married

特点:对立的/不可分级

2) Contrary terms —— a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.

E.g. rich——(well-to-do )——poor ; old – (middle-aged ) —— young , open – (ajar )—close , beautiful – (good-looking ) –(plain ) – ugly , hot ——(warm , cool )——cold

verbs. E.g. love – (attachment ) – (liking ) – (indifferent ) – (antipathy ) —— hate

3) Relative terms – consist of relational oppositeness. The pairs of words indicate such a social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other, the type is also reverse terms. The two words of each pair interdependent. E.g. parent ——child ; husband ——wife ; predecessor – successor , employer —— employee

sell —buy , give –receive ,

16. free/bound/inflectional morphemes 及例子

Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences, e.g. cat, walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.

Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words, e.g. recollection (re+collect+ion) collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. (include bound root and affix) Bound morphemes are found in derived words.

Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes —— Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional , thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.

17. specialization/generalization/pejoration/amelioration

Pejoration(语义转贬)

Pejoration is the process by which a word's meaning worsens or degenerates, coming to represent something less favorable than it originally did. Most of the words in Suffield's poem have undergone pejoration.

For instance, the word silly begins Suffield's poem and meant in Old English times "blessed", which is why Suffield calls his poem a beatitude (Christ's beatitudes begin with "blessed are the..."). How did a word meaning "blessed" come to mean "silly"? Well, since people who are blessed are often innocent and guileless, the word gradually came to mean "innocent". And some of those who are innocent might be innocent because they haven't the brains to be anything else. And some of those who are innocent might be innocent because they knowingly reject opportunities for temptation. In either case, since the more worldly-wise would take advantage of their opportunities, the innocents must therefore be foolish, which of course is the current primary meaning of the word silly .

Amelioration (变好) is the process by which a word's meaning improves or becomes elevated, coming to represent something more favorable than it originally referred to.

Two words that have undergone amelioration are priest and prester . Both

words (along with presbyter ) are descended from the Greek word presbuteros , "older man, elder", a comparative form of the word presbus , "old man".

Because churches of most religions are headed by elders and not youth, and because age is often equated with wisdom, the Greek word gradually acquired the meaning of "church leader, priest". The different forms represent

borrowings made at different times, with priest being the oldest English form, followed by prester , followed by the learned borrowing of presbyter . Generalization (归纳)

Also known as extension, generalization is the use of a word in a broader realm of meaning than it originally possessed, often referring to all items in a class, rather than one specific item. For instance, place derives from Latin platea , "broad street", but its meaning grew broader than the street, to include "a particular city", "a business office", "an area dedicated to a specific purpose" before broadening even wider to mean "area". In the process, the word place displaced (!) the Old English word stow and became used instead of the Old English word stede (which survives in stead , steadfast , steady and -- of course -- instead ).

Generalization is a natural process, especially in situations of "language on a shoestring", where the speaker has a limited vocabulary at her disposal, either because she is young and just acquiring language or because she is not fluent

in a second language. A first-year Spanish student on her first vacation in Spain might find herself using the word coche , "car", for cars, trucks, jeeps, buses, and so on. When my son Alexander was two, he used the word oinju (from orange juice) to refer to any type of juice, including grape juice and apple juice; wawa (from water ) referred to water and hoses, among other things. Some examples of general English words that have undergone generalization include:

Specialization (意义说我限定)

The opposite of generalization, specialization is the narrowing of a word to refer to what previously would have been but one example of what it referred to. For instance, the word meat originally referred to "any type of food", but came to mean "the flesh of animals as opposed to the flesh of fish". The

original sense of meat survives in terms like mincemeat , "chopped apples and spices used as a pie filling"; sweetmeat , "candy"; and nutmeat , "the edible portion of a nut". When developing your model language, it is meet to leave compounds untouched, even if one of their morphemes has undergone specialization (or any other meaning change).

For an example from another language, the Japanese word koto originally referred to "any type of stringed instrument" but came to be used to refer only a specific instrument with 13 strings, which was played horizontally and was popular in the Edo Period.

Other examples of specialization, from the development of English, include:

18. “reversative” or “privative” prefixes

de-, dis-, un-, e.g. decentralize (give greater powers for self-government), de-compose (separate into parts); disunite (become separate), disallow (refuse to allow); unhorse (cause to fall from a horse), unwrap (open). The prefixes of this group can all be found in the previous class. The reason for their separation lies in the meaning.

19. homograph/hyponmy/homophone/homonymy/antonymy

大论述题

1. context

Context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the linguistic context, and in many cases by the whole speech situation as well.

Types of context

In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses , sentences in which a word appears.

This is known as languished context with may cover a paragraph , a whole chapter and even the entire book.

In a broad sense , it includes the physical situation as whole. this is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embrace the people, place , and even the whole culture background.

The extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire culture background.

trade union in western countries/in China

Landlord in Chinese/in western country weekend

Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context

Lexical Context – refers to the words occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring word.

Grammatical context – The meanings of a word may be inflected by the structure in which it occurs.

Generally speaking , the immediate verbal context , either lexical or grammatical , will suffice for interpreting meaning of a word

As indicated. however , there are cases where the meaning of a word may remain a puzzle until a whole paragraph, a chapter or even a whole book covered. the role of context content has three major function

elimination of ambiguity

Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with multiple meanings used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.

He is a hard businessman.

Jone ran the egg and spoon race.

John ran the egg and spoon race and won second place.

Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as tow separate words share the same form.

Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.

indication of referents

English has a large number of words used to refer directly to people, time , place , etc. without clear context, the reference can be very confusing

provision of clues for inferring word meaning

1. definition

2. explanation

3. example

4. synonym

5. antonym

6. hyponym

7. relevant details

8. word structure

3. 语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境:词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.

4. 语境的作用:Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy

6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure

2. word-formation

affixation 30%-40% compounding 28%-30% conversion 26% shortening 8%-10% (clipping and acronymy) blending and others 1%-5%

1. Affixation (Derivation ) —— the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems. (derivative 派生词)

According to their position, affixation falls into: prefixation and suffixation.

1). Prefixation —— the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.

1. Negative prefixes – a- (abnormal ), dis- (disobey ),

2. Reversative prefixes – de- (decentralize ), dis- (disunite ), un- (unwrap )

3. Pejorative prefixes – mal- (maltreat ), mis- (mistrust ), pseudo- (pseudo-science )

4. Prefixes of degree or size – arch- (archbishop ), extra-(extra-strong ), hyper-(hyperactive ), macro- (macrocosm ), micro- (microcomputer ),

5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude – anti- (anti-nuclear ), contra-

(contraflow ), counter-, pro-(pro-student )

6. Locative prefixes – extra- (extraordinary ), fore- (forehead ), inter- (inter-city ), intra- (intra-party ), tele-, trans-

7. Prefixes of time and order – ex- (ex-wife ), fore- (foretell ), pre-, re- (reconsider )

8. Number Prefixes – bi-, multi- (poly-) (multi-purpose ), semi- (hemi-), tri- (tricycle ), uni-(mono-) (uniform )

9. Miscellaneous prefixes – auto-, neo- (neo-Nazi ), pan- (pan-European ), vice-

2). Suffixation ——Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class ). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.

Noun suffixes

Denominal nouns (名词+suffix ——名词)

a. Concrete —— -eer (engineer ), -er (teenager ), -ess (hostess ) b. Abstract —— -age (wastage ), -dom (处于„状态)(officialdom ), -ery (slavery ), -ery (-ry ), -hood (childhood )

Deverbal nouns (动词+suffix——名词)

a. Denoting people —— -ant (assistant ), -ee (trainee ), -ent (respondent ), -er (-or )

b. Denoting action, result , process , state , ect. —— -age (linkage ), -al (dismissal ), -ance (attendance ),

De-adjective nouns (形容词+suffix——名词) —— -ity (popularity ), -ness (happiness )

Nouns and adjectives suffixes —— -ese (Chinese ), -an (Australian ), -ist (主义) (socialist )

Adjective suffixes

Denominal suffixes —— -ed (wooded ), -ful (successful ), -ish (foolish ), -less (priceless ), -like (lady-like ), -ly (friendly ), -y (smoky )

-al (-ial , -ical ) (cultural , residential ), -esque (picturesque ), -ic (economic ), -ous (-eous , -ious ) (coutageous )

-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases, but differ in meaning. Historic (important in history) historical (of history)

Classic (great , memorable ) classical (of Latin or Greek)

Comic (of comedy) comical (funny )

Economic (in the economy) economical (money-saving )

Electric (powered by electricity) electrical (of electricity)

Deverbal suffixes —— -able (-ible ) (washable ), -ive (-ative , -sive ) (active , decisive )

Adverb suffixes —— -ly (calmly ), -ward (s ) (homewards ), -wise (clockwise )

Verb suffixes —— -ate (originate ), -en (darken ), -(i )fy (beautify ), -ize (ise ) (modernize )

Nik most of them are considered slang.

2. Compounding (Composition )——Compounding is a process of word-formation by joining two or more stems.

Compounds- a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.

三种形式solid , hyphenated , open

1). Characteristics (differ from free phrases)

Phonetic features

Compound (not absolute) Free phrase

Stress on the first element Stress on the second element

Semantic features

Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity.

Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.

A lot of compounds are transparent and the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds.

Grammatical features

A compound plays a single grammatical role in a sentence.

In adjective-noun compounds , the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.

Compound Free phrase

fine art finer art

Formation

Most compounds consist of 2 stems, but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationship within the words is considered complex. Noun compounds

Adjective compounds

Verb compounds (through conversion and back formation)

Back formed verb compounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes, -er , -ing ,-ion , -etc.

3.Conversion (zero-derivation , functional shift ) ——Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs.

A change of grammatical function

The different range of meaning

Conversion to noun

Verb to noun-almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.

1. State (of mind or sensation)

2. Event or activity

3. Result of the action

4. Doer of the action

5. Tool or instrument

6. Place of the action

Adjective to noun (full conversion, partial conversion)

1. Words fully converted-a noun converted from an adjective has all the

characteristics of nouns. It can take an identical article or –e (s ).

2. Words partially converted – do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. They retain some of the adjective features. Words of this class generally refer to a group of the kind.

3. Miscellaneous conversion

Conversion to verbs

1. Noun to verb-verbs of this kind are all transitive.

2. Adjective to verb

3. Miscellaneous conversion

Apart from the three major types of word-formation ---compounding, derivation and conversion---there are also minor types of word-formation.

(1) Acronymy – joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms

Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. It’s one of the word formations of acronymy.

E.g. IMF=International Monetary Fund.

Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. . It’s one of the word formations of acronymy.

E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

(2) Clipping – shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the origin and using what remains instead. People tend to ve economical in writing and speech to keep up the tempo of new life style.

Front clipping

Quake (earthquake ) / Copter (helicopter )/ scope (telescope )/ phone (telephone )

Back clipping

Dorm (dormitory )

Front and back clipping

Phrase clipping

(3) Blending—is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.

Head + tail autocide / motel/ slurb / cremains / chunnel

Head + head comsat / telex / Amerind / sitcom / FORTRAM

Head + word medicare / Eurasia / telequiz / atuocamp

Word + tail lunarnaut / bookmobile / workfare / tourmobile

The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns , very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.

(4) Back-formation —— is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.

(5) 8.Words from proper names modern English has a large number of words

which come from proper nouns. They include

1. Names of people

Words of this group are from names of scientists, investors , etc. these terms are used as measurements.

Some words are from characters in mythology.

Some are from historical figures.

Some words are from characters in literary books.

2.Names of places

Many words denoting products, objects or materials come from the names of places where they were first produced.

3.Names of books

4.Tradenames

(6)reduplication is a major type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition

Of one word like go-go

Of two almost identical words with a change in the vowel’s such as ping-pong Of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in teenyweeny. Most of the reduplicatives are in formal.

(7)Neoclassical formation denotes the process by which new words are formed elements derived from Latin and Greek(as in telephone)

The majority of neoclassical formation are scientific and technical. i.g. aeroacostics n. “the study of sound propagation in the air and its effect on the environment ”

判断新词分属那种次要构词法,写出该构词法英文名称

(次要构词法名称:acronymy, clipping, blending, back-formation, words from proper names, reduplication, neoclassical formation)

英文新词翻译

1. bellicism(好战的) bad-mouth(背后说坏话,严格批评) wired(联网) coffee(不停咳嗽) edutainment(教育娱乐节目) demino theory(多米诺效益) glibido(直说空话,不实战) willy-nilly (优柔寡断) contact lens(隐形镜片) a jar of beer(扎啤) phrasceout(逐步撤军) log on(登陆) hole-in-the wall(取款机) flick knife(折叠刀) family planning(计划生育) overhead walkway(人行天桥) talk show(访谈节目) pop wine(起泡酒) buzzword(流行词) commuter(通勤者) tools bar(工具栏) freeware(软件) otherly abled person(残疾人) splatter(凶杀电影) rolling news(滚动新闻) recessionista(衰退达人) cybermania(上网成瘾者) Linsanity(林来疯) Podcast(播客)

2. 雪碧(sprite ) 扎啤(a jar of beer) 硅谷(silicon valley) 山寨(cheap copy) 超人(super man) 装嫩(act young) 咆哮体(roaring agenre) 房奴(montgage slave ) 鼠标上下移动(scroll ) 吐司(toast ) “钓鱼”执法(sting operation) 吃空饷(free loading) 辣妹组合(spicy girl) 试管婴儿(tube baby) 自助餐(buff ) 秒杀(seckill ) 交通协管员(traffic madden) 犀利哥(Brother Shark) 博客(blog ) 百事可乐(pepsi ) 溜溜球(yoyo ) 网络冲浪者(surfer ) 黄牛(scalper ) 严重违纪(serious discipline violation)

语境中的词义

1. The old man died a natural death at the age of 92.

那位老人在92岁的时候无疾而终

2. Not everything that is beautifully built is built beautifully.

并不是每一个精心施工的建筑都能达到巧夺天工的地步

3. China crackles with the dynamics of change.

中国大力推进改革,充满勃勃生机

4. There is still a preoccupation with appearance at the expense of reality. 不顾现实情况,一心只做表面文章的现象依然存在

5. The top executives of this state owned enterprise all are refugees from the country’s bureaucratic and underfinanced state research sector.

该国企高层经理人来自于国家机构,这些机构不仅充斥着官僚气息,而且研究经费不足,因此他们很难在那种地方待下去

6. Spain runs out of ideas for dealing with Basque terrorism.

西班牙对于处理巴斯克恐怖主义已经无计可施

7. Feeling poor, America is acting(囊中羞涩) mean. It wants its allies to pay more for their own defense. It is dragging its feet in payments to international organization, notably the World Bank and the United Nations. It is letting its aid budget to poor nations shrink. And it has given notice that it does not like the way foreigners sell more to it than they buy from it.

8. President Barack Obama was obviously quite impressed by the arguments that the Chinese were advancing.

奥巴马总统对中国人提出的建议印象深刻

9. The fear of Chinese Singaporeans of being outbred by other ethnic groups has yet to come true.

华裔新加坡人担心遭到其他种族的排挤

10. The editorials are full of slogans and predictable repetition of the government line on the zeal of the army, the errors of the enemy…

社论充满口号和可想而知的老调,一再重复政府的那一套说法,如,军队气势高昂,敌人的错误等等

11. To filter out what is unique from what is shared might enable us to understand how complex cultural behavior arouse and what guides it in evolutionary or cognitive terms.

对人类文化进行去异求同,或许能帮助我们理解复杂多样的文化行为是怎样形成的以及从人类进化论和认知论角度分析是什么引领了文化行为的发展。

英语词汇学

1 .idiom: An English idiom is a group of words with a special meaning different from the meaning of its constituent words. Idioms are usually semantically opaque, i.e. metaphorical rather than literal.

2. Blending is a process of word-formation in which a new word is formed by combing and sounds of two words, one of which is not in its full form or both of which are not in their full forms: e.g. newscast (news + broadcast), brunch (breakfast + lunch).

3. complementaries (互补反义词):complementaries or contradictories represent a type of binary semantic opposition. E.g. alive and dead, single and married, present and absent.

4. Polysemy (一次多义): A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings. E.g. the word fair has various meanings : “(of attitude, behaviour) just and honest”; “(of result) average, quite good”; “(of the weath er)clear and sunny”; “(of the mount)satisfactory, abundant”; “(of the skin)pale; light in color”; “clean, clear; with out blemish”

5.conceptual meaning(概念意义): Conceptual meaning (also known as denotative meaning) is the meaning given in the dictionary and forms the core of word meaning. Being constant and relatively stable, conceptual meaning forms the basis for communication as the same word has the same conceptual meaning to all the speakers of the same language. Take 'The sun rises in the east' for example. The word sun here means 'a heavenly body which gives off light, heat, and energy', a concept which is understood by anyone who speaks English.

6.affixation(派生法): Derivation or affixation is generally defined as a word-formation process by which new words are created by adding a prefix, or suffix, or both, to the base. (举例)

7.analogical creation a way to coin word by following an existing word already established

1) Single Word; telethon/talkathon-marathon//starquake/youthquake-earthquake chairperson/woman/one-chairman//cheese/beef/shrimpburger-hamburger

2) Phrase; sound/air/language/visional/cultural pollution-environment pollution swim/stay/stand in-sit in//botel/airtel/-motel

选择和判断

1. nonce word: (为特定场合的需要) 而临时造的词: A nonce word is a word used only "for the nonce"—to meet a need that is not expected to recur. Quark, for example, was a nonce word in English appearing only in James Joyce's Finnegans Wake until Murray Gell-Mann quoted it to name a new class of subatomic particle. The use of the term nonce word in this way was apparently the work of James Murray, the influential editor of the Oxford English Dictionary.

" Runcible spoon", from Edward Lear, which later came to describe a curved fork with a cutting edge.

2. grammatical/function words

Function words (or grammatical words or synsemantic words or structure-class words) are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning, but instead serve to express grammatical relationships with other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. They signal the structural relationships that words have to one another and are the glue that holds sentences together. Thus, they serve as important elements to the structures of sentences.

e.g. articles, pronouns, conjunction

3. sense and reference

4. 造成歧义的原因(structural/lexical/ambiguity及其例子)

5. morpheme/stem/root

Morpheme —— A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. (The smallest functional unit in the composition of words.)

Root —— A root is the basic form of a word, which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. (What remains of a word after the removal of all affixes. ) .e.g. “internationalists ” removing inter-, -al-, -ist , -s , leaves the root nation.

Stem —— a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. E.g. “internationalists ”, nation is a root and a stem as well.

a stem may consist of a single root or two roots and a root plus a affix. a stem can be a root or a form bigger than a root.

6. motivation 什么?有几种?

Motivation refers to the connection betwween word-symbol and its sense.

Phonetic Motivation (拟声词) – the words whose sounds suggest their meaning. (Indicate the relationship between sound and meaning). Knowing the sounds of the words means understanding the meaning. These words were created by imitating the natural sounds or noises. For example, bang , ping-pang , crow by cocks, etc. Morphological Motivation ——Compounds and derived words are multi-morphemic words and the meaning of many words are the sum total of the morphemes combined. (Indicate the relationship between word meaning and each morpheme meaning). For instance, airmail means to “mail by air”, miniskirt is “a small skirt”。

Semantic Motivation ——refers to the mental associations suggested by the conceptual meaning of a word. It explained the connection between literal sense and figurative sense of a word). E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we associate the opening part of the river with the mouth of a human being or an animal.

7. seven types of meaning

(1) Conceptual meaning ------Logical, cognitive, or denotation content 逻辑的,认知的,或者外延的内容

conceptual meaning: the central part of meaning, which contains logical,cognitive,or denotative content.

Associative meaning:联想意义

(2) Connotative meaning------what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. 内涵意义:通过语言所指所传达的意义

(3) Social meaning-----what is communicated of the social circumstances of language

use. 社会意义:所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义

(4) Affective meaning-----what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.感情意义:所传达的关于说话人或作者感情,态度方面的意义

(5) Reflected meaning------what is communicated throght association with another sense of the same expression. 反射意义:通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义

(6) Collocative meaning------what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.搭配意义:通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。

(7) Thematic meaning----what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.主题意义:通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义

8. functional shift

In linguistics, functional shift occurs when an existing word takes on a new syntactic function. For example, the word like, formerly only used as a preposition in comparisons (as in "eats like a pig"), is now also used in the same way as the subordinating conjunction as in many dialects of English (as in "sounds like he means it"). The boundary between functional shift and conversion (the derivation of a new word from an existing word of identical form) is not well-defined, but it could be construed that conversion changes the lexical meaning and functional shift changes the syntactic meaning.

9. amelioration/degradation

10. synonyms 的分类

1)complete synonyms: two words are totally synonyms only if they are fully identical in meaning and interchangeable in any context without the slightest alteration in connotation, affective and stylistic meaning. i.e. spirants and fricatives in phonetics, word-formation and word-building in lexicology, caecitis and typhlitis in medicine.

2) relative synonyms

i.g. angry, rage, fury, indignation and wrath are synonyms in denoting the emotional excitement induced by intense displeasure.

11. word 是什么?

1) A word is a minimal free form of a language;2) A sound unity or a given sound ;3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in a sentence.以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释

12. affix 的类型

Affixes —— Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. Almost affixes are bound morphemes.

13. denominal suffix

14. loanshift/loan translation

(Linguistics) the adoption by one language of a phrase or compound word whose

components are literal translations of the components of a corresponding phrase or compound in a foreign language English ``superman'' is a loan translation from German ``Übermensch.'' Also called calque

15. types and examples of opposites

Types of Antonyms (according to the semantic opposition )

1) Contradictory terms – these antonyms are truly represent oppositeness of meaning. They are so opposed to each other that they are mutually exclusive and admit no possibility between them. They assertion of one is the denial of the other. E.g. alive—dead , present ——absent , male – female , boy – girl , true – false , same – different , imperfect – perfect

Such antonyms are non-gradable. They can not be used in comparative degrees and do not allow adverbs like “very ” to qualify them. Single/married

特点:对立的/不可分级

2) Contrary terms —— a scale running between two poles or extremes. The two opposites are gradable and one exists in comparison with the other.

E.g. rich——(well-to-do )——poor ; old – (middle-aged ) —— young , open – (ajar )—close , beautiful – (good-looking ) –(plain ) – ugly , hot ——(warm , cool )——cold

verbs. E.g. love – (attachment ) – (liking ) – (indifferent ) – (antipathy ) —— hate

3) Relative terms – consist of relational oppositeness. The pairs of words indicate such a social relationship that one of them can not be used without suggesting the other, the type is also reverse terms. The two words of each pair interdependent. E.g. parent ——child ; husband ——wife ; predecessor – successor , employer —— employee

sell —buy , give –receive ,

16. free/bound/inflectional morphemes 及例子

Free morphemes or Free root —— The morphemes have complete meaning and van be used as free grammatical units in sentences, e.g. cat, walk. They are identical with root words. morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free.

Bound Morphemes —— The morphemes cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to other morphemes to form words, e.g. recollection (re+collect+ion) collect – free morpheme re-and –ion are bound morphemes. (include bound root and affix) Bound morphemes are found in derived words.

Inflectional morphemes or Inflectional affixes —— Affixes attaches to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional , thus known as inflectional morphemes. The number of inflectional affixes is small and stable.

17. specialization/generalization/pejoration/amelioration

Pejoration(语义转贬)

Pejoration is the process by which a word's meaning worsens or degenerates, coming to represent something less favorable than it originally did. Most of the words in Suffield's poem have undergone pejoration.

For instance, the word silly begins Suffield's poem and meant in Old English times "blessed", which is why Suffield calls his poem a beatitude (Christ's beatitudes begin with "blessed are the..."). How did a word meaning "blessed" come to mean "silly"? Well, since people who are blessed are often innocent and guileless, the word gradually came to mean "innocent". And some of those who are innocent might be innocent because they haven't the brains to be anything else. And some of those who are innocent might be innocent because they knowingly reject opportunities for temptation. In either case, since the more worldly-wise would take advantage of their opportunities, the innocents must therefore be foolish, which of course is the current primary meaning of the word silly .

Amelioration (变好) is the process by which a word's meaning improves or becomes elevated, coming to represent something more favorable than it originally referred to.

Two words that have undergone amelioration are priest and prester . Both

words (along with presbyter ) are descended from the Greek word presbuteros , "older man, elder", a comparative form of the word presbus , "old man".

Because churches of most religions are headed by elders and not youth, and because age is often equated with wisdom, the Greek word gradually acquired the meaning of "church leader, priest". The different forms represent

borrowings made at different times, with priest being the oldest English form, followed by prester , followed by the learned borrowing of presbyter . Generalization (归纳)

Also known as extension, generalization is the use of a word in a broader realm of meaning than it originally possessed, often referring to all items in a class, rather than one specific item. For instance, place derives from Latin platea , "broad street", but its meaning grew broader than the street, to include "a particular city", "a business office", "an area dedicated to a specific purpose" before broadening even wider to mean "area". In the process, the word place displaced (!) the Old English word stow and became used instead of the Old English word stede (which survives in stead , steadfast , steady and -- of course -- instead ).

Generalization is a natural process, especially in situations of "language on a shoestring", where the speaker has a limited vocabulary at her disposal, either because she is young and just acquiring language or because she is not fluent

in a second language. A first-year Spanish student on her first vacation in Spain might find herself using the word coche , "car", for cars, trucks, jeeps, buses, and so on. When my son Alexander was two, he used the word oinju (from orange juice) to refer to any type of juice, including grape juice and apple juice; wawa (from water ) referred to water and hoses, among other things. Some examples of general English words that have undergone generalization include:

Specialization (意义说我限定)

The opposite of generalization, specialization is the narrowing of a word to refer to what previously would have been but one example of what it referred to. For instance, the word meat originally referred to "any type of food", but came to mean "the flesh of animals as opposed to the flesh of fish". The

original sense of meat survives in terms like mincemeat , "chopped apples and spices used as a pie filling"; sweetmeat , "candy"; and nutmeat , "the edible portion of a nut". When developing your model language, it is meet to leave compounds untouched, even if one of their morphemes has undergone specialization (or any other meaning change).

For an example from another language, the Japanese word koto originally referred to "any type of stringed instrument" but came to be used to refer only a specific instrument with 13 strings, which was played horizontally and was popular in the Edo Period.

Other examples of specialization, from the development of English, include:

18. “reversative” or “privative” prefixes

de-, dis-, un-, e.g. decentralize (give greater powers for self-government), de-compose (separate into parts); disunite (become separate), disallow (refuse to allow); unhorse (cause to fall from a horse), unwrap (open). The prefixes of this group can all be found in the previous class. The reason for their separation lies in the meaning.

19. homograph/hyponmy/homophone/homonymy/antonymy

大论述题

1. context

Context is very important for the understanding of word-meaning because the meaning is influenced immediately by the linguistic context, and in many cases by the whole speech situation as well.

Types of context

In a narrow sense, it refers to the words, clauses , sentences in which a word appears.

This is known as languished context with may cover a paragraph , a whole chapter and even the entire book.

In a broad sense , it includes the physical situation as whole. this is called extra-linguistic or non-linguistic context, which embrace the people, place , and even the whole culture background.

The extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace the entire culture background.

trade union in western countries/in China

Landlord in Chinese/in western country weekend

Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context

Lexical Context – refers to the words occur together with the word in question. The meaning of the word is often affected and defined by the neighboring word.

Grammatical context – The meanings of a word may be inflected by the structure in which it occurs.

Generally speaking , the immediate verbal context , either lexical or grammatical , will suffice for interpreting meaning of a word

As indicated. however , there are cases where the meaning of a word may remain a puzzle until a whole paragraph, a chapter or even a whole book covered. the role of context content has three major function

elimination of ambiguity

Ambiguity often arises due to polysemy and homonymy. When a word with multiple meanings used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.

He is a hard businessman.

Jone ran the egg and spoon race.

John ran the egg and spoon race and won second place.

Homonymy is another cause of ambiguity as tow separate words share the same form.

Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.

indication of referents

English has a large number of words used to refer directly to people, time , place , etc. without clear context, the reference can be very confusing

provision of clues for inferring word meaning

1. definition

2. explanation

3. example

4. synonym

5. antonym

6. hyponym

7. relevant details

8. word structure

3. 语境的种类:非语言语境。语言语境:词汇语境和语法语境。There are two types of contexts: linguistic context and extra-linguistic (or non-linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.

4. 语境的作用:Three major functions of context: elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents, provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2) explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy

6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word structure

2. word-formation

affixation 30%-40% compounding 28%-30% conversion 26% shortening 8%-10% (clipping and acronymy) blending and others 1%-5%

1. Affixation (Derivation ) —— the formation of words by adding word forming or derivational affixes to stems. (derivative 派生词)

According to their position, affixation falls into: prefixation and suffixation.

1). Prefixation —— the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. It does not change the word-class of the stem but change its meaning.

1. Negative prefixes – a- (abnormal ), dis- (disobey ),

2. Reversative prefixes – de- (decentralize ), dis- (disunite ), un- (unwrap )

3. Pejorative prefixes – mal- (maltreat ), mis- (mistrust ), pseudo- (pseudo-science )

4. Prefixes of degree or size – arch- (archbishop ), extra-(extra-strong ), hyper-(hyperactive ), macro- (macrocosm ), micro- (microcomputer ),

5. Prefixes of orientation and attitude – anti- (anti-nuclear ), contra-

(contraflow ), counter-, pro-(pro-student )

6. Locative prefixes – extra- (extraordinary ), fore- (forehead ), inter- (inter-city ), intra- (intra-party ), tele-, trans-

7. Prefixes of time and order – ex- (ex-wife ), fore- (foretell ), pre-, re- (reconsider )

8. Number Prefixes – bi-, multi- (poly-) (multi-purpose ), semi- (hemi-), tri- (tricycle ), uni-(mono-) (uniform )

9. Miscellaneous prefixes – auto-, neo- (neo-Nazi ), pan- (pan-European ), vice-

2). Suffixation ——Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function of stems (the word class ). Suffixes can be grouped on a grammatical basis.

Noun suffixes

Denominal nouns (名词+suffix ——名词)

a. Concrete —— -eer (engineer ), -er (teenager ), -ess (hostess ) b. Abstract —— -age (wastage ), -dom (处于„状态)(officialdom ), -ery (slavery ), -ery (-ry ), -hood (childhood )

Deverbal nouns (动词+suffix——名词)

a. Denoting people —— -ant (assistant ), -ee (trainee ), -ent (respondent ), -er (-or )

b. Denoting action, result , process , state , ect. —— -age (linkage ), -al (dismissal ), -ance (attendance ),

De-adjective nouns (形容词+suffix——名词) —— -ity (popularity ), -ness (happiness )

Nouns and adjectives suffixes —— -ese (Chinese ), -an (Australian ), -ist (主义) (socialist )

Adjective suffixes

Denominal suffixes —— -ed (wooded ), -ful (successful ), -ish (foolish ), -less (priceless ), -like (lady-like ), -ly (friendly ), -y (smoky )

-al (-ial , -ical ) (cultural , residential ), -esque (picturesque ), -ic (economic ), -ous (-eous , -ious ) (coutageous )

-ic and –ical can be affixed to the stem in some cases, but differ in meaning. Historic (important in history) historical (of history)

Classic (great , memorable ) classical (of Latin or Greek)

Comic (of comedy) comical (funny )

Economic (in the economy) economical (money-saving )

Electric (powered by electricity) electrical (of electricity)

Deverbal suffixes —— -able (-ible ) (washable ), -ive (-ative , -sive ) (active , decisive )

Adverb suffixes —— -ly (calmly ), -ward (s ) (homewards ), -wise (clockwise )

Verb suffixes —— -ate (originate ), -en (darken ), -(i )fy (beautify ), -ize (ise ) (modernize )

Nik most of them are considered slang.

2. Compounding (Composition )——Compounding is a process of word-formation by joining two or more stems.

Compounds- a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single word.

三种形式solid , hyphenated , open

1). Characteristics (differ from free phrases)

Phonetic features

Compound (not absolute) Free phrase

Stress on the first element Stress on the second element

Semantic features

Compounds are different from free phrases in semantic unity.

Every compound should express a single idea just as one word.

A lot of compounds are transparent and the meaning can be inferred from the separate elements of compounds.

Grammatical features

A compound plays a single grammatical role in a sentence.

In adjective-noun compounds , the adjective element cannot take inflectional suffixes.

Compound Free phrase

fine art finer art

Formation

Most compounds consist of 2 stems, but are formed on a rich variety of patterns and the internal grammatical relationship within the words is considered complex. Noun compounds

Adjective compounds

Verb compounds (through conversion and back formation)

Back formed verb compounds are formed mainly by dropping the suffixes, -er , -ing ,-ion , -etc.

3.Conversion (zero-derivation , functional shift ) ——Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new only in a grammatical sense. The most productive is between nouns and verbs.

A change of grammatical function

The different range of meaning

Conversion to noun

Verb to noun-almost all monomorphemic verbs can be used as nouns.

1. State (of mind or sensation)

2. Event or activity

3. Result of the action

4. Doer of the action

5. Tool or instrument

6. Place of the action

Adjective to noun (full conversion, partial conversion)

1. Words fully converted-a noun converted from an adjective has all the

characteristics of nouns. It can take an identical article or –e (s ).

2. Words partially converted – do not possess all the qualities a noun does. They must be used together with definite articles. They retain some of the adjective features. Words of this class generally refer to a group of the kind.

3. Miscellaneous conversion

Conversion to verbs

1. Noun to verb-verbs of this kind are all transitive.

2. Adjective to verb

3. Miscellaneous conversion

Apart from the three major types of word-formation ---compounding, derivation and conversion---there are also minor types of word-formation.

(1) Acronymy – joining the initial letters of names of social and political organizations or special phrases and technical terms

Initialisms are words formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as letters. It’s one of the word formations of acronymy.

E.g. IMF=International Monetary Fund.

Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of word and pronounced as words. . It’s one of the word formations of acronymy.

E.g. NATO/'neito/=North Atlantic Treaty Organization.

(2) Clipping – shorten a longer word by cutting a part of the origin and using what remains instead. People tend to ve economical in writing and speech to keep up the tempo of new life style.

Front clipping

Quake (earthquake ) / Copter (helicopter )/ scope (telescope )/ phone (telephone )

Back clipping

Dorm (dormitory )

Front and back clipping

Phrase clipping

(3) Blending—is the word formation by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word.

Head + tail autocide / motel/ slurb / cremains / chunnel

Head + head comsat / telex / Amerind / sitcom / FORTRAM

Head + word medicare / Eurasia / telequiz / atuocamp

Word + tail lunarnaut / bookmobile / workfare / tourmobile

The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns , very few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer.

(4) Back-formation —— is a process of word-formation by which a word is created by the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered to be the opposite process of suffixation.

(5) 8.Words from proper names modern English has a large number of words

which come from proper nouns. They include

1. Names of people

Words of this group are from names of scientists, investors , etc. these terms are used as measurements.

Some words are from characters in mythology.

Some are from historical figures.

Some words are from characters in literary books.

2.Names of places

Many words denoting products, objects or materials come from the names of places where they were first produced.

3.Names of books

4.Tradenames

(6)reduplication is a major type of word-formation by which a compound word is created by the repetition

Of one word like go-go

Of two almost identical words with a change in the vowel’s such as ping-pong Of two almost identical words with a change in the initial consonants, as in teenyweeny. Most of the reduplicatives are in formal.

(7)Neoclassical formation denotes the process by which new words are formed elements derived from Latin and Greek(as in telephone)

The majority of neoclassical formation are scientific and technical. i.g. aeroacostics n. “the study of sound propagation in the air and its effect on the environment ”

判断新词分属那种次要构词法,写出该构词法英文名称

(次要构词法名称:acronymy, clipping, blending, back-formation, words from proper names, reduplication, neoclassical formation)

英文新词翻译

1. bellicism(好战的) bad-mouth(背后说坏话,严格批评) wired(联网) coffee(不停咳嗽) edutainment(教育娱乐节目) demino theory(多米诺效益) glibido(直说空话,不实战) willy-nilly (优柔寡断) contact lens(隐形镜片) a jar of beer(扎啤) phrasceout(逐步撤军) log on(登陆) hole-in-the wall(取款机) flick knife(折叠刀) family planning(计划生育) overhead walkway(人行天桥) talk show(访谈节目) pop wine(起泡酒) buzzword(流行词) commuter(通勤者) tools bar(工具栏) freeware(软件) otherly abled person(残疾人) splatter(凶杀电影) rolling news(滚动新闻) recessionista(衰退达人) cybermania(上网成瘾者) Linsanity(林来疯) Podcast(播客)

2. 雪碧(sprite ) 扎啤(a jar of beer) 硅谷(silicon valley) 山寨(cheap copy) 超人(super man) 装嫩(act young) 咆哮体(roaring agenre) 房奴(montgage slave ) 鼠标上下移动(scroll ) 吐司(toast ) “钓鱼”执法(sting operation) 吃空饷(free loading) 辣妹组合(spicy girl) 试管婴儿(tube baby) 自助餐(buff ) 秒杀(seckill ) 交通协管员(traffic madden) 犀利哥(Brother Shark) 博客(blog ) 百事可乐(pepsi ) 溜溜球(yoyo ) 网络冲浪者(surfer ) 黄牛(scalper ) 严重违纪(serious discipline violation)

语境中的词义

1. The old man died a natural death at the age of 92.

那位老人在92岁的时候无疾而终

2. Not everything that is beautifully built is built beautifully.

并不是每一个精心施工的建筑都能达到巧夺天工的地步

3. China crackles with the dynamics of change.

中国大力推进改革,充满勃勃生机

4. There is still a preoccupation with appearance at the expense of reality. 不顾现实情况,一心只做表面文章的现象依然存在

5. The top executives of this state owned enterprise all are refugees from the country’s bureaucratic and underfinanced state research sector.

该国企高层经理人来自于国家机构,这些机构不仅充斥着官僚气息,而且研究经费不足,因此他们很难在那种地方待下去

6. Spain runs out of ideas for dealing with Basque terrorism.

西班牙对于处理巴斯克恐怖主义已经无计可施

7. Feeling poor, America is acting(囊中羞涩) mean. It wants its allies to pay more for their own defense. It is dragging its feet in payments to international organization, notably the World Bank and the United Nations. It is letting its aid budget to poor nations shrink. And it has given notice that it does not like the way foreigners sell more to it than they buy from it.

8. President Barack Obama was obviously quite impressed by the arguments that the Chinese were advancing.

奥巴马总统对中国人提出的建议印象深刻

9. The fear of Chinese Singaporeans of being outbred by other ethnic groups has yet to come true.

华裔新加坡人担心遭到其他种族的排挤

10. The editorials are full of slogans and predictable repetition of the government line on the zeal of the army, the errors of the enemy…

社论充满口号和可想而知的老调,一再重复政府的那一套说法,如,军队气势高昂,敌人的错误等等

11. To filter out what is unique from what is shared might enable us to understand how complex cultural behavior arouse and what guides it in evolutionary or cognitive terms.

对人类文化进行去异求同,或许能帮助我们理解复杂多样的文化行为是怎样形成的以及从人类进化论和认知论角度分析是什么引领了文化行为的发展。


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