翻译理论1

所谓翻译,是指在译语中用最切近而又自然的对等于再现原语的信息,首先在语义上,其次在文体上。 )

3. 翻译是一个笼统的概念,可以有不同的角度分成多种类型:

首先,就所涉及的语言而言,可以分为语内翻译 (intralingual translation),指同一语言的各个语言变体之间的翻译;另一种为语际翻译 (interlingual translation),指不同语言之间的翻译活动。我们常说的翻译,包括我们本教程所谈论的翻译,都是指语际翻译。 第二,就其活动方式而言,翻译可分为口译(interpretation)和笔译(translation)两类。口译一般指口头翻译,其基本方式有两种:一是连续传译(consecutive interpretation),又称即席翻译;二是同声传译(simultaneous interpretation)。笔译就是笔头翻译,多用于社会科学,科学技术和文学艺术等文献资料的翻译。

第三,就翻译材料的文体而言,翻译可分为应用文体,科技文体,论述文体,新闻文体和艺术文体五大类。

第四,就处理方式而言,翻译可分为全译,节译,摘译,编译和译述等类。

4. Translation is an art, a bilingual art. Like painting, translation enables us to reproduce the fine thought of somebody, not in colors, but in words, in words of a different language. It is no easy job, not so easy as it is supposed. Do not think that any one who knows a foreign language, say English, can invariably translate and translate well. No, not at all. Many can speak and write English well, but they cannot translate. And this difficulty is greatly multiplied by the wide difference in vocabulary and sentence construction between the Oriental and Occidental languages.

5. English and Chinese are two entirely different languages. Each has an individual and distinct system. On the one hand, there are some similarities between the two languages, as in the word order of subject and predicate and that of transitive verb and object. On the other hand, there are lots of dissimilarities between them both in morphology and in syntax. Because of this, we have to be familiar with both languages, especially with the wide difference in vocabulary, grammatical relations and sentence construction between these two languages.

6. I’ll see the children home tonight.

The stupidity of his behavior was brought home to him.

Maternity home costs in America have gone up sharply.

Much is produced here for home market.

He was born in England, but he now looks on Paris as his home.

He’s at home with the classics.

Is our next football match at home or away?

Mrs. Hill is not at home to everyone except relatives.

She did not feel at home in such a splendid house.

The control level should be turned to its home position in time.

The screw on the end cap must be driven home.

The plane homed to its carrier under the guide of electronic navigation system.

7. ①严复:信(faithfulness) 达(expressiveness) 雅(elegance)

黄龙:信:忠实于原文内容。

达:标准汉语,通俗易懂。

雅:译文的美学价值(修辞,文体,韵律,诗意。)

刘重德:信(faithfulness)达(expressiveness)切(closeness)鲁迅:“凡是翻译,必须兼顾着两个方面,一是其易解, 二是保存着原作的风姿。”

傅雷:“神似”——similarity in spirit.

钱钟书:“化境”——sublimation

②Alexander F. Tytler:

A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.

The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original.

A translation should have all the ease of the original work.

③目前西方最流行的标准:

等值:equivalent value

等效:equivalent effect

功能对等:functional equivalence

8. 关于 when the lady ticket-sell saw me, her otherwise attractive face turned sour, violently so. 当女售票员看见我时,她那在其他情况下还挺妩媚的面孔突然变色,变得怒气冲冲。 那售货员一见到我,原本 颇为动人的面孔刷得一沉,变得煞是难看。

At Eton the boys stand in a cluster and lift their hats their names are called.

在伊顿,学生们站在一起,当他们的名字被叫到的时候,就举举帽子。

在伊顿,学生们站在一起,叫道名字就举举帽子。

I had scarcely passed my twelfth birthday I entered the inhospitable regions of examinations…

我进入令人头痛的考试区域时,刚过了十二岁生日…

我刚过了十二岁生日,就步入了令人头痛的考试区域。

9. 关于同位语

由于他的决定,我给及时地编入了四年级(也即最低年级)的三班(也即最低一班). 由于他的决定,我给及时地编入了四年级三班,也就是最低年级的最低一班。

In consequence of his decision, I was in due course placed in the third, or lowest, division of the Fourth, or bottom, Form.

10. 关于主语要突出句子的主要信息问题

…到去年年底,我部已同有关省市签订了100余条艘中小船舶的建造合同和协议。 By the end of last year, contracts and agreements were signed with some provinces and cities for the construction of more than 100 medium-and-sized vessels.

我看《21世纪报》很吃力,你呢?

My English is not good enough to read English newspaper The 21 Century. What about you?

他只要听到几句恭维的话就会得意忘形。

A little flattery would get him carried away.

你的教学科研都取得了长足的进步,但不能因此而骄傲自满。

You have made good progress in teaching and research, but you should not get conceited and arrogant.

11. 关于“关于…”

关于她的家庭我一无所知

As for her family, I knew nothing about it.

I knew nothing about her family.

凡是已经发现了的错误,我们都已经采取了或正在采取纠正的步骤。没有发现的,我们就准备纠正。

With regard to all the mistakes having been discovered, steps have been or are being taken to correct them. As for those not yet discovered, they will be corrected as soon as they come to light.

We are taking or having taken steps to correct all the mistakes discovered, and we are ready to correct those not yet discovered as soon as they come to light.

12. 长主题问题:

在这座大城市行路难,乘车难已成为一个突出的社会问题。

The great difficulty for the people of the big city to get their destination on foot or by public transport means has become a conspicuous social problem.

In this big city people find great trouble in getting to their destinations either on foot or by public transport means, and it / this has become a top social problem.

中国能不能顶住霸权主义,强权政治的压力,坚持我的社会主义制度,关键就看能不能取得较快的增长速度,实现我们的发展战略。

The key to whether China can withstand the pressures of hegemonism and power politics and adhere to the socialist system lies in whether or not we can achieve a relatively high growth rate and realize our development strategy.

If China wants to withstand the pressure of hegemonism and power politics and to uphold the socialist system, it is crucial for us to achieve rapid economic growth and to carry out our development strategy.

◆the Meridian Gate 午门

 the Outer Palace 外朝

 the Inner Court 内廷

 the Golden Water Bridge 金水桥

 the Gate of Supreme Harmony 太和门

 the Hall of Complete Harmony 中和殿

 the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿

 British Association 英国科学促进学会

 the Business section 商业区

 parklands 公园区

 sovereign nations 主权国家

 per capital GNP 人均国民生产总值

 two way trade 双向贸易

 bilateral trade 双边贸易

 joint venture 合资企业

 labour intensive industries 劳动密集型产业

 economic growth 经济增长

 trading nation 贸易国

 the Pacific region 太平洋地区

▲ net income 净收入

▲ international trade and investment 国际贸易和投资

▲ international community 国际社会

▲ foreign exchange dealing 外汇交易

▲ major economy 经济大国

▲ the European Union 欧洲同盟

▲ the World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织

▲ the net import 净进口量

▲ Valentine’s day 圣瓦伦丁节

▲ the Westminster Abbey 威斯敏斯特教堂

Environmental Law 环境保护法

contracting states 缔约国

Universal Copyright Convention 世界版权公约

come into force 生效

diplomatic relation 外交关系

Let a hundred schools of thought contend百家争鸣

man of letters 文学家

the rules of literature 文学规律

literary circles 文学界

flower language 花言巧语

deaf mute 聋哑人

sign language 手语

Berlin :柏林

fellow countryman :同胞

Sun Yat – sen: 孙中山

The Chinese Communist Party group in Berlin:中国共产党在柏林的党组织 The Berlin Communist group:柏林共产党支部

the Grand Canal:大运河

the great Nanjing Bridge:南京长江大桥

Aaron’s rod:亚伦魔杖

Industrial Revolution:工业革命

Navigation:开凿运河

cottage industry:家庭手工业

Royal Society: 皇家学会

Indian summer: 小阳春/晚秋的晴暖气候

Long drive: 长征

The Civil War: 内战

The Nile Delta: 尼罗河三角洲

Cairo: 开罗

The Nile Valley: 尼罗河河谷

The Aswan High Dam: 阿斯旺高坝

summer resort: 避暑胜地

Mediterranean climate: 地中海性气候

mean temperature: 平均温度

the Imperial Palace: 皇宫

the Palace Museum: 故宫

the Imperial Ancestral Temple: 太庙

台湾,香港,澳门保持原有的资本主义制度和生活方式不变 Taiwan, Hong kong and Macao will retain the current capitalist system and way of life for a long time to come 台湾当局 the Taiwan authorities

跆拳道 tae kwon do

太空步 moonwalk

太空舱 capsule

太空垃圾 space trash

太阳浴 sun bath; insolation

贪污腐化 corruption and degeneration

摊牌 put/lay one’s card on the table

谈判的筹码 bargain chip

探明储量 verified deposits; verified reserves

探亲外交 family-visit diplomacy; relative-visiting diplomacy

唐老鸭 Donald Duck

唐装 Tang suit

陶冶情操 cultivate one’s taste

特技替身演员 stuntman

特洛伊木马 Trojan horse

特种债券 special bonds

提高劳动者则素质 to enhance workers’ quality

提高农产品收购价格 the government’s increase in its procurement prices (for farm products)

提高全民法律素质 people are better educated in law

提高社会参与度 to enhance (encourage) mass participation

提高意识 raise the awareness / strengthen the awareness

体育彩票 sports lotteries

天赋人权 natural rights

天时地利人和 good timing, geographical convenience and good human relations;

favorable climatic, geographical and human conditions;

favorable objective and subjective factors for success.

ⅰ. Transliteration

气功 qigong

功夫 kong fu

太极 Tai chi

风水 feng shui

阴阳 yinyang

磕头 kowtow

旗袍(长衫) cheongsam

馄饨 wonton

豆腐 tofu

杂碎 Chop suey

饺子 jiaozi

荔枝 litchi

乌龙茶 oolong

阿迪达斯 ADIDAS

桑塔纳 SANTANA

摩托罗拉 MOTORAOLA

柯达 KODAK

芬必得 FINBID

真维斯 JEANSWEST

必胜客 PIZZA HUT

ⅱ. Liberal translation

皮蛋 preserved egg

元宵 sweet dumplings made of glutinous rice flour

粽子 a pyramid-shaped dumpling made of glutinous rice wrapped in bamboo or reed leaves 探花 title conferred on the one who won third place in the highest imperial examination in the Ming and Qing dynasties

拜堂 perform the marriage ceremony

华表 an ornamental stone column used to decorate important buildings or public places 盲流 jobless migrants from rural areas to cities

ⅰⅱ. Literal translation

易经 Book of Changes

号脉 feel the pulse

京剧 Beijing Opera

龙舟 dragon boat

春节 Spring Festival

春卷 spring roll

八宝菜 eight-treasure pickles

纸老虎 paper tiger

北大荒 the Great Northern Wilderness

灯影牛肉 Shadow Beef

希望工程 Hope Project

一国两制 one country, two system

八宝莲子粥 Eight-Treasure Lotus Seed Porridge

文化大革命 Cultural Revolution

毛泽东思想 Mao Tse-tung Thought

四个现代化 four modernizations

ⅳ. Annotation

八卦 eight-part essay (a literary composition prescribed for the imperial civil service examinations, known for its rigidity of form and poverty of ideas.)

满月酒 One-Month-Old Birthday Feast (a special ceremony held after a baby has been one month old.)

西岳 the Western Mountain (another name for Mount Huashan in Shaanxi Province.) 铁饭碗 iron rice bowl (a job that is stable, reliable, and guaranteed for life.)

牛郎织女 the Cowherd and the Girl Weaver- two figures in an ancient Chinese fairy tale (Later it also refers to husband and wife who live far apart.)

东郭先生 Mr. Dongguo (the foolish, softhearted scholar who narrowly escaped being eaten by a wolf which he had helped to hide from a hunter in a Chinese folk tale. Later, it refers to a native person who gets into trouble through being softhearted to evil people.)

西施 Xishi (a famous beauty in the late Spring and Autumn Period)

否定句的翻译

词汇手段

1. 否定词或具否定意义的词:

no, not, never, nor, neither; hardly, rarely, seldom, barely, scarcely, narrowly, few, little;

prefixes: no-, non-, in-, dis-, un-, im-;

suffixes: -less.

2. 动词:lack, fail, deny, miss, exclude, run out/short of, keep/stop/refrain/prevent…from, get rid of, want, overlook.

3. 名词:absence, exclusion, lack, want, failure, ignorance, denial.

4. 形容词:absent, missing, ignorant, gone, free/far/safe from, short of, exclusive of……

5. 介词:beyond, without, above, except, save, but, in vain.

6. 连词:before, unless, other than, or.

句法手段

more…than…, other than…, rather than…, would rather than…, know better than…, too…to…, too…for…等

所谓翻译,是指在译语中用最切近而又自然的对等于再现原语的信息,首先在语义上,其次在文体上。 )

3. 翻译是一个笼统的概念,可以有不同的角度分成多种类型:

首先,就所涉及的语言而言,可以分为语内翻译 (intralingual translation),指同一语言的各个语言变体之间的翻译;另一种为语际翻译 (interlingual translation),指不同语言之间的翻译活动。我们常说的翻译,包括我们本教程所谈论的翻译,都是指语际翻译。 第二,就其活动方式而言,翻译可分为口译(interpretation)和笔译(translation)两类。口译一般指口头翻译,其基本方式有两种:一是连续传译(consecutive interpretation),又称即席翻译;二是同声传译(simultaneous interpretation)。笔译就是笔头翻译,多用于社会科学,科学技术和文学艺术等文献资料的翻译。

第三,就翻译材料的文体而言,翻译可分为应用文体,科技文体,论述文体,新闻文体和艺术文体五大类。

第四,就处理方式而言,翻译可分为全译,节译,摘译,编译和译述等类。

4. Translation is an art, a bilingual art. Like painting, translation enables us to reproduce the fine thought of somebody, not in colors, but in words, in words of a different language. It is no easy job, not so easy as it is supposed. Do not think that any one who knows a foreign language, say English, can invariably translate and translate well. No, not at all. Many can speak and write English well, but they cannot translate. And this difficulty is greatly multiplied by the wide difference in vocabulary and sentence construction between the Oriental and Occidental languages.

5. English and Chinese are two entirely different languages. Each has an individual and distinct system. On the one hand, there are some similarities between the two languages, as in the word order of subject and predicate and that of transitive verb and object. On the other hand, there are lots of dissimilarities between them both in morphology and in syntax. Because of this, we have to be familiar with both languages, especially with the wide difference in vocabulary, grammatical relations and sentence construction between these two languages.

6. I’ll see the children home tonight.

The stupidity of his behavior was brought home to him.

Maternity home costs in America have gone up sharply.

Much is produced here for home market.

He was born in England, but he now looks on Paris as his home.

He’s at home with the classics.

Is our next football match at home or away?

Mrs. Hill is not at home to everyone except relatives.

She did not feel at home in such a splendid house.

The control level should be turned to its home position in time.

The screw on the end cap must be driven home.

The plane homed to its carrier under the guide of electronic navigation system.

7. ①严复:信(faithfulness) 达(expressiveness) 雅(elegance)

黄龙:信:忠实于原文内容。

达:标准汉语,通俗易懂。

雅:译文的美学价值(修辞,文体,韵律,诗意。)

刘重德:信(faithfulness)达(expressiveness)切(closeness)鲁迅:“凡是翻译,必须兼顾着两个方面,一是其易解, 二是保存着原作的风姿。”

傅雷:“神似”——similarity in spirit.

钱钟书:“化境”——sublimation

②Alexander F. Tytler:

A translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.

The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original.

A translation should have all the ease of the original work.

③目前西方最流行的标准:

等值:equivalent value

等效:equivalent effect

功能对等:functional equivalence

8. 关于 when the lady ticket-sell saw me, her otherwise attractive face turned sour, violently so. 当女售票员看见我时,她那在其他情况下还挺妩媚的面孔突然变色,变得怒气冲冲。 那售货员一见到我,原本 颇为动人的面孔刷得一沉,变得煞是难看。

At Eton the boys stand in a cluster and lift their hats their names are called.

在伊顿,学生们站在一起,当他们的名字被叫到的时候,就举举帽子。

在伊顿,学生们站在一起,叫道名字就举举帽子。

I had scarcely passed my twelfth birthday I entered the inhospitable regions of examinations…

我进入令人头痛的考试区域时,刚过了十二岁生日…

我刚过了十二岁生日,就步入了令人头痛的考试区域。

9. 关于同位语

由于他的决定,我给及时地编入了四年级(也即最低年级)的三班(也即最低一班). 由于他的决定,我给及时地编入了四年级三班,也就是最低年级的最低一班。

In consequence of his decision, I was in due course placed in the third, or lowest, division of the Fourth, or bottom, Form.

10. 关于主语要突出句子的主要信息问题

…到去年年底,我部已同有关省市签订了100余条艘中小船舶的建造合同和协议。 By the end of last year, contracts and agreements were signed with some provinces and cities for the construction of more than 100 medium-and-sized vessels.

我看《21世纪报》很吃力,你呢?

My English is not good enough to read English newspaper The 21 Century. What about you?

他只要听到几句恭维的话就会得意忘形。

A little flattery would get him carried away.

你的教学科研都取得了长足的进步,但不能因此而骄傲自满。

You have made good progress in teaching and research, but you should not get conceited and arrogant.

11. 关于“关于…”

关于她的家庭我一无所知

As for her family, I knew nothing about it.

I knew nothing about her family.

凡是已经发现了的错误,我们都已经采取了或正在采取纠正的步骤。没有发现的,我们就准备纠正。

With regard to all the mistakes having been discovered, steps have been or are being taken to correct them. As for those not yet discovered, they will be corrected as soon as they come to light.

We are taking or having taken steps to correct all the mistakes discovered, and we are ready to correct those not yet discovered as soon as they come to light.

12. 长主题问题:

在这座大城市行路难,乘车难已成为一个突出的社会问题。

The great difficulty for the people of the big city to get their destination on foot or by public transport means has become a conspicuous social problem.

In this big city people find great trouble in getting to their destinations either on foot or by public transport means, and it / this has become a top social problem.

中国能不能顶住霸权主义,强权政治的压力,坚持我的社会主义制度,关键就看能不能取得较快的增长速度,实现我们的发展战略。

The key to whether China can withstand the pressures of hegemonism and power politics and adhere to the socialist system lies in whether or not we can achieve a relatively high growth rate and realize our development strategy.

If China wants to withstand the pressure of hegemonism and power politics and to uphold the socialist system, it is crucial for us to achieve rapid economic growth and to carry out our development strategy.

◆the Meridian Gate 午门

 the Outer Palace 外朝

 the Inner Court 内廷

 the Golden Water Bridge 金水桥

 the Gate of Supreme Harmony 太和门

 the Hall of Complete Harmony 中和殿

 the Hall of Preserving Harmony 保和殿

 British Association 英国科学促进学会

 the Business section 商业区

 parklands 公园区

 sovereign nations 主权国家

 per capital GNP 人均国民生产总值

 two way trade 双向贸易

 bilateral trade 双边贸易

 joint venture 合资企业

 labour intensive industries 劳动密集型产业

 economic growth 经济增长

 trading nation 贸易国

 the Pacific region 太平洋地区

▲ net income 净收入

▲ international trade and investment 国际贸易和投资

▲ international community 国际社会

▲ foreign exchange dealing 外汇交易

▲ major economy 经济大国

▲ the European Union 欧洲同盟

▲ the World Trade Organization 世界贸易组织

▲ the net import 净进口量

▲ Valentine’s day 圣瓦伦丁节

▲ the Westminster Abbey 威斯敏斯特教堂

Environmental Law 环境保护法

contracting states 缔约国

Universal Copyright Convention 世界版权公约

come into force 生效

diplomatic relation 外交关系

Let a hundred schools of thought contend百家争鸣

man of letters 文学家

the rules of literature 文学规律

literary circles 文学界

flower language 花言巧语

deaf mute 聋哑人

sign language 手语

Berlin :柏林

fellow countryman :同胞

Sun Yat – sen: 孙中山

The Chinese Communist Party group in Berlin:中国共产党在柏林的党组织 The Berlin Communist group:柏林共产党支部

the Grand Canal:大运河

the great Nanjing Bridge:南京长江大桥

Aaron’s rod:亚伦魔杖

Industrial Revolution:工业革命

Navigation:开凿运河

cottage industry:家庭手工业

Royal Society: 皇家学会

Indian summer: 小阳春/晚秋的晴暖气候

Long drive: 长征

The Civil War: 内战

The Nile Delta: 尼罗河三角洲

Cairo: 开罗

The Nile Valley: 尼罗河河谷

The Aswan High Dam: 阿斯旺高坝

summer resort: 避暑胜地

Mediterranean climate: 地中海性气候

mean temperature: 平均温度

the Imperial Palace: 皇宫

the Palace Museum: 故宫

the Imperial Ancestral Temple: 太庙

台湾,香港,澳门保持原有的资本主义制度和生活方式不变 Taiwan, Hong kong and Macao will retain the current capitalist system and way of life for a long time to come 台湾当局 the Taiwan authorities

跆拳道 tae kwon do

太空步 moonwalk

太空舱 capsule

太空垃圾 space trash

太阳浴 sun bath; insolation

贪污腐化 corruption and degeneration

摊牌 put/lay one’s card on the table

谈判的筹码 bargain chip

探明储量 verified deposits; verified reserves

探亲外交 family-visit diplomacy; relative-visiting diplomacy

唐老鸭 Donald Duck

唐装 Tang suit

陶冶情操 cultivate one’s taste

特技替身演员 stuntman

特洛伊木马 Trojan horse

特种债券 special bonds

提高劳动者则素质 to enhance workers’ quality

提高农产品收购价格 the government’s increase in its procurement prices (for farm products)

提高全民法律素质 people are better educated in law

提高社会参与度 to enhance (encourage) mass participation

提高意识 raise the awareness / strengthen the awareness

体育彩票 sports lotteries

天赋人权 natural rights

天时地利人和 good timing, geographical convenience and good human relations;

favorable climatic, geographical and human conditions;

favorable objective and subjective factors for success.

ⅰ. Transliteration

气功 qigong

功夫 kong fu

太极 Tai chi

风水 feng shui

阴阳 yinyang

磕头 kowtow

旗袍(长衫) cheongsam

馄饨 wonton

豆腐 tofu

杂碎 Chop suey

饺子 jiaozi

荔枝 litchi

乌龙茶 oolong

阿迪达斯 ADIDAS

桑塔纳 SANTANA

摩托罗拉 MOTORAOLA

柯达 KODAK

芬必得 FINBID

真维斯 JEANSWEST

必胜客 PIZZA HUT

ⅱ. Liberal translation

皮蛋 preserved egg

元宵 sweet dumplings made of glutinous rice flour

粽子 a pyramid-shaped dumpling made of glutinous rice wrapped in bamboo or reed leaves 探花 title conferred on the one who won third place in the highest imperial examination in the Ming and Qing dynasties

拜堂 perform the marriage ceremony

华表 an ornamental stone column used to decorate important buildings or public places 盲流 jobless migrants from rural areas to cities

ⅰⅱ. Literal translation

易经 Book of Changes

号脉 feel the pulse

京剧 Beijing Opera

龙舟 dragon boat

春节 Spring Festival

春卷 spring roll

八宝菜 eight-treasure pickles

纸老虎 paper tiger

北大荒 the Great Northern Wilderness

灯影牛肉 Shadow Beef

希望工程 Hope Project

一国两制 one country, two system

八宝莲子粥 Eight-Treasure Lotus Seed Porridge

文化大革命 Cultural Revolution

毛泽东思想 Mao Tse-tung Thought

四个现代化 four modernizations

ⅳ. Annotation

八卦 eight-part essay (a literary composition prescribed for the imperial civil service examinations, known for its rigidity of form and poverty of ideas.)

满月酒 One-Month-Old Birthday Feast (a special ceremony held after a baby has been one month old.)

西岳 the Western Mountain (another name for Mount Huashan in Shaanxi Province.) 铁饭碗 iron rice bowl (a job that is stable, reliable, and guaranteed for life.)

牛郎织女 the Cowherd and the Girl Weaver- two figures in an ancient Chinese fairy tale (Later it also refers to husband and wife who live far apart.)

东郭先生 Mr. Dongguo (the foolish, softhearted scholar who narrowly escaped being eaten by a wolf which he had helped to hide from a hunter in a Chinese folk tale. Later, it refers to a native person who gets into trouble through being softhearted to evil people.)

西施 Xishi (a famous beauty in the late Spring and Autumn Period)

否定句的翻译

词汇手段

1. 否定词或具否定意义的词:

no, not, never, nor, neither; hardly, rarely, seldom, barely, scarcely, narrowly, few, little;

prefixes: no-, non-, in-, dis-, un-, im-;

suffixes: -less.

2. 动词:lack, fail, deny, miss, exclude, run out/short of, keep/stop/refrain/prevent…from, get rid of, want, overlook.

3. 名词:absence, exclusion, lack, want, failure, ignorance, denial.

4. 形容词:absent, missing, ignorant, gone, free/far/safe from, short of, exclusive of……

5. 介词:beyond, without, above, except, save, but, in vain.

6. 连词:before, unless, other than, or.

句法手段

more…than…, other than…, rather than…, would rather than…, know better than…, too…to…, too…for…等


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